SB 

367 


UC-NRLF 


SB    71    73M 


GIFT  OF 


1 


i  If* 


INVESTIGATION 


MADE    BY   THE 


STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  INDUSTRY 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY,  UNFRUITFULNESS 
OF  VARIETIES,  METHODS  OF  CULTURE,  PRUN- 
ING,  PROCESSING  OF  FRUIT,   ETC. 


REPORT  TO  GOVERNOR  GAGE 


A.    ,T.    JOHNSTON, 


SACRAMENTO: 

:  :  SUPERINTENDENT   STATE    PRINTING 

1900. 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  CULTURE. 


PLATE  I. 


FLOWERING  OLIVE  BRANCH— (NATURAL  SIZE). 


INVESTIGATION 


MADE    BY   THE 


STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  INDUSTRY 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY,  ITNFRUITFULNESS 
OF  VARIETIES,  METHODS  OF  CULTURE,  PRUN- 
ING, PROCESSING  OF  FRUIT,   ETC. 


REPORT  TO  GOVERNOR  GAGE. 


SACRAMENTO: 

A.  j.  JOHNSTON,        :         :         :        SUPERINTENDENT  STATE  PRINTING. 

1900. 


SERVATION 
Y  ADDED 

51NALTOBE 

UNED 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE 


ELL  WOOD  COOPER President Santa  Barbara 

Commissioner  for  the  Los  Angeles  District. 

FRANK  H.  BUCK Vice-President Vacaville 

Commissioner  for  the  Napa  District. 

WILLIAM  B.  GESTER Treasurer ..Newcastle 

Commissioner  for  the  El  Dorado  District. 

RUSS  D.  STEPHENS Auditor Sacramento 

Commissioner  for  the  State  at  Large. 

THOMAS  A.  RICE El  Rio 

Commissioner  for  the  State  at  Large. 

H.  WEINSTOCK  ._ _ Sacramento 

Commissioner  for  the  Sacramento  District. 

BEN  M.  MADDOX Visalia 

Commissioner  for  the  San  Joaquin  District. 

A.  BLOCK .- Santa  Clara 

Commissioner  for  the  San  Francisco  District. 

W.  J.  HOTCHKISS- - Healdsburg 

Commissioner  for  the  Sonoma  District. 


B.  M.  LELONG... Secretary  and  Chief  Horticultural  Officer 

ALEXANDER  CRAW ...Quarantine  Officer  and  Entomologist 

ELLA  F.  HALLAHAN  _.  ...Clerk 


State  Capis*  Sacamento,, 

Branch  Office,  Clay  Street  Dock,  San  Francisco. 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE, 
SACRAMENTO,  February  28,  1900. 

To  His  Excellency  HENRY  T.  GAGE,  Governor  of  California: 

SIR:  Urgent  requests  having  been  made  to  this  Board  for  an 
investigation  of  the  supposed  unfruitfulness  of  the  olive  in 
different  portions  of  the  State,  and  also  for  information  on 
methods  of  planting,  pruning,  extraction  of  oil,  etc.,  it  was 
determined  to  make  an  examination  of  the  causes  of  complaint 
and  to  furnish  the  desired  information.  These  deductions,  in 
concise  form,  are  embodied  in  the  report  herewith  submitted 
by  our  Secretary,  who  was  detailed  to  make  the  investigation, 
being  a  research  covering  almost  every  section  of  the  State 
where  the  olive  is  grown.  The  investigation  not  yet  being 
complete,  this  will  form  part  of  a  report  on  same,  to  be  con- 
cluded in  our  Biennial  Report  at  the  close  of  the  present  fiscal 
year. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

ELLWOOD  COOPER, 

President. 


330598 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION 1 _ 7 

THE  OLIVE 10 

PROPAGATION 11 

SOILS 19 

OLIVES  IN  POOR  SOILS 23 

UNFRUITFULNESS  OF  THE  OLIVE 25 

TRANSPLANTING 29 

PRUNING ._. 32 

GRAFTING  AND  BUDDING 38 

VARIETIES.. 49 

THE  "MISSION"  OLIVE '....  50 

INTRODUCED  VARIETIES i 52 

CULTIVATED  VARIETIES 53 

ORNAMENTAL  VARIETIES 56 

EXTRACTING  OLIVE  OIL.... „  57 

PICKING  APPARATUS 68 

OLIVE  OIL  FILTERING  OR  CLARIFYING 70 

PICKLING,  PROCESSING,  ETC 71 

GRADING - 78 

PESTS  AFFECTING  THE  OLIVE 79 

NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  THE  BLACK  SCALE...                                 .  82 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  INDUSTRY. 


By  B.  M.  LELONG,  Secretary  of  State  Board  of   Horticulture,  and  Chief 

Horticultural  Officer  of  California,  aided  by  growers 

throughout  the  State. 


Historic  records  tell  us  that  the  olive  tree  was  introduced 
into  California  in  1769,  from  San  Bias,  Mexico,  by  an  expedi- 
tion of  Franciscans  sent  to  take  charge  of  the  Jesuit  missions 
in  California.  It  appears  from  the  ship's  manifest  that  one 
Jose  de  Galvez,  who  was  "  Visitor-General "  and  secular  head, 
with  Father  Serra,  proceeded  to  make  arrangements  for  the 
establishment  of  settlements.  He  seemed  to  be  farseeing, 
for  it  was  found  that  he  had  caused  to  be  shipped  to  "Alta" 
California,  flower,  vegetable,  and  fruit  seeds  for  garden  and 
orchard,  and  grain  for  the  field:  The  ship's  manifest  does  not 
show  that  any  trees  or  cuttings  were  brought. 

The  first  seeds  of  the  olive  are  said  to  have  been  planted  at 
the  Mission  San  Diego,  and  those  seeds  (which  Galvez  had  been 
so  provident  in  sending)  grew  and  prospered.  The  Fathers 
built  new  missions,  and  among  the  first  trees  planted  was  the 
olive,  grown  from  cuttings  taken  from  trees  of  the  San  Diego 
mission.  All  the  mission  orchards  were  very  small,  and  some 
had  but  few  trees,  but  those  trees  played  an  important  part  in 
the  horticultural  history  of  our  State,  for  they  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  a  gigantic  industry  and  furnished  stocks  for  many 
groves,  which  to-day  may  be  styled  the  "  prehistoric  "  orchards 
of  the  State. 

For  many  years,  a  century  or  more,  only  one  variety 
of  olive,  the  "Mission,"  so  called  from  its  having  been  first 
grown  at  the  various  historic  missions,  was  known  in  the 
State.  Many  of  those  trees  still  live  and  bear  remunerative 
crops  under  favorable  conditions.  That  the  larger  part  of 
these  primitive  trees  were  grown  from  seed  there  is  but  little 
doubt,  for  in  almost  every  mission  olive  orchard  there  are  trees 
growing  side  by  side  of  entirely  distinct  types.  Some  are  of  a 


8  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

willowy  habit,  the  fruit  large  and  roundish,  which  matures 
early  and  evenly;  others  are  tall,  lofty,  sturdy  trees,  bearing 
elongated  fruit  and  of  very  uneven  ripening;  while  still 
others  are  of  a  dwarfish  habit  of  growth,  the  fruit  small  and  of 
very  little  value.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  olive  plants  that 
have  sprung  up  spontaneously  under  trees  from  pits  of  fruit 
that  dropped,  especially  where  the  soil  had  not  been  disturbed 
for  a  season.  I  have  gathered  many  such  plants  for  several 
seasons.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  this  also  occurred  in 
the  primitive  days  at  the  mission  orchards;  the  plants,  no 
doubt  being  cared  for,  in  time  became  as  large  as  their  parents 
and  to-day  are  probably  numbered  among  the  historic  trees  of 
our  State.  This  no  doubt  is  also  accountable  for  the  great 
variability  of  the  different  types  of  the  Mission  olive  found  in 
different  localities,  and  especially  in  mission  orchards. 

In  the  matter  of  climate,  California  is  well  adapted  to  olive 
culture.  The  tree  requires  a  moderately  uniform  temperature 
and  will  not  withstand  extremes  of  either  heat  or  cold.  It  is 
essentially  a  fruit  requiring  an  invariable  climate,  being  found 
between  45  degrees  north  and  1 8  degrees  south.  The  altitude  at 
which  the  olive  will  grow  depends  upon  the  latitude.  The  farther 
north  we  go  in  the  olive  belt  the  lower  the  altitude  at  which  it 
will  thrive,  and  the  farther  south  the  higher  the  altitude  suited 
to  it.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  in  latitude  37  degrees  north, 
it  will  do  well  at  3,000  feet.  Locations  visited  daily  by  a 
gentle  breeze,  especially  in  the  blossoming  season,  are  well 
suited  to  the  olive,  while  intense  heat  at  this  period  may  ruin 
all  prospects  of  a  crop,  and  a  low  temperature,  say  14°,  is  fatal 
to  the  tree,  while  26°  is  fatal  to  the  fruit. 

The  culture  of  the  olive  for  commercial  purposes  forms  an 
industry  that,  with  proper  protection,  should  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  safest  in  California,  and  under  favorable  conditions 
the  most  profitable  of  all  branches  of  horticulture.  Large 
areas  of -land  have  been  planted  to  this  fruit,  in  most  of  which 
it  finds  all  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  perfectly  adapted 
to  its  growth  and  fruitage. 

*"The  published  estimate  of  the  number  of  olive  trees  (by 
County  Assessors  to  the  State  Board  of  Equalization)  now 
growing  is  2,500,000.  The  number  of  pounds  that  a  tree 

*Address  by  Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  State  Fruit-Growers'  Convention, 
November,  1897. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    INDUSTRY.  9 

in  full  bearing  will  produce  under  favorable  conditions  is  250. 
For  the  purposes  of  this  article  we  will  assume  that  the  trees 
will  bear  only  in  alternate  years;  we  will  allow  also,  for 
deficiencies  from  various  causes,  20  per  cent;  we  will  then  have 
250,000,000  pounds.  Allow  one  half  of  this  product  to  be 
pickled  and  dried,  which  would  amount  to  400,000  barrels  of 
50  gallons  each — 6,000  carloads.  The  other,  to  be  made  into 
oil,  would  give  1,000,000  cases  of  12  bottles  each— 2,000  car- 
loads. According  to  correspondence  which  I  have  in  my  pos- 
session, there  will  be  a  large  additional  planting  this  coming 
season.  Can  such  quantity  be  sold  under  present  conditions? 
This  condition  of  the  industry  should  be  carefully  considered 
by  those  who  have  orchards,  and  especially  so  by  those  who 
intend  planting.  We  have,  therefore,  a  great  missionary  work 
to  do  in  educating  the  human  family  up  to  the  realization  of 
the  importance  of  consuming  the  product  of  the  olive  tree. 
That  such  knowledge  sooner  or  later  will  be  universal  among 
intelligent  people  is  my  conviction.  Also,  that  the  object  of 
our  energies  and  labor:  to  work  for  the  health,  happiness,  and 
prosperity  of  unborn  generations,  is  a  very  worthy  one.  But  we 
want  something  ourselves.  The  greatest  drawback  to  the  sale 
of  olive  oil  is  the  adulterations  and  substitutions  put  on  the 
market  with  fraudulent  labels  and  fraudulent  statements;  the 
purpose  being  to  deceive  the  consumers  for  larger  margins  of 
gain.  The  difficulty  in  selling  the  olive  pickles  arises  from 
want  of  knowledge  in  processing  them  or  from  want  of  care. 
There  is  now  an  active  market  for  the  ripe  Mission  olive,  if  well 
pickled,  and  if  the  growers  will  take  the  care  and  do  it  properly 
there  will  soon  be  a  market  for  a  very  large  quantity." 


10 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


THE  OLIVE. 


The  Genus  OLEA,  Linnaeus. — Calyx-Perianth  (floral  envelope)  monophyl- 
lous  (one-leaved),  tubular,  small,  mouth  quadridentate  (having  four  teeth 
on  the  edge),  erect,  deciduous  (falling  off).  Corolla  monopetalous,  infundi- 
buliform  (funnel-shaped) ;  tube  cylindrical,  of  the  length  of  calyx ;  limb 
quadripartite  (divided  to  the  base  into  four  parts),  flat,  laciniae  (narrow, 
slender  portion  of  the  edge)  semi-ovate.  Stamens  two,  filaments  opposite, 
subulate  (awl-shaped),  short;  anthers  erect.  Pistil  germ  subrotund (almost 
round);  style  simple,  very  short;  stigma  bifid  (two-cleft),  thick,  laciniae 
emarginate  (notched  at  the  summit).  Drupe  (stone  fruit)  subovate,  glabrous 
(hairless),  unilocular.  Seed  an  ovate-oblong  (oblong  with  one  end  narrower 
than  the  other),  wrinkled  nut. 

The  Flower  or  Blossom.— The  flower  or  blossom  of  the 

olive  develops  and  is 
borne  on  growth  of  the 
preceding  year.  The 
olive  puts  forth  growth 
in  the  spring  immedi- 
ately after  the  awaken- 
ing of  vegetation.  The 
leaves  of  the  first  de- 
velopment appear  of  a 
lighter  green  than  the 
others.  A  little  before 
the  beginning  of  April 
(in  warm  regions,  in 
March)  there  appear  in 
the  axis  of  the  first  leaves 
greenish  panicles,  sus- 
tained by  a  common 
peduncle;  in  proportion 
as  the  system  gains  in 
consistency  and  growth 
these  round  panicles  take 
a  pyriform  shape,  and  at 
this  stage  may  be  seen 
appendages  or  stipules 
turned  down;  this  is 
of  the 


i 


Flowering  olive  branch-reduced  one  half. 

which  discloses  in  most  sections  in  May,  and  in  some  (along 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — PROPAGATION.  11 

the  coast  and  in  the  bay  counties)  not  before  June,  while  in  the 
warm  regions  as  early  as  March  or  April.  The  olives  produced 
from  the  flowers  first  expanded  are  the  most  certain  to  reach 
maturity,  the  second  less,  while  those  of  the  last  are  generally 
lost.  The  bloom  is  susceptible  to  extremes  of  cold  or  heat.  A 
continued  hot  spell,  rain,  cold,  or  wind  during  the  blossoming 
time  prevents  fecundation. 

The  floral  symmetry  of  the  olive  is  very  characteristic.  The 
fruit  presents  variations,  the  importance  of  which  has  been 
diversely  appreciated  according  to  the  epoch  and  the  state  of 
science.  At  the  time  when  external  morphology  alone  was 
furnishing  characters,  the  fruit,  with  its  different  forms,  seemed 
of  capital  importance.  Now  it  is  known  that  its  origin  is 
always  the  same,  that  its  differences  are  superficial,  and  more 
important  and  desirable  characters  are  preferably  considered. 

Leaf. — The  leaves  of  Oleacese  are  opposite,  seldom  being 
alternate,  simple  or  paucifoliate  (a  few  leaflets),  pennate 
(feather-shaped),  entire  or  toothed,  always  destitute  of  stipules 
(appendages  at  the  base  of  leaves).  The  leaf  is  always 
covered  by  an  epidermis  formed  of  a  single  layer  of  cells  rich 
in  tannin. 

Fruit. — The  fruit  is  a  drupe,  fleshy,  drupaceous  (of  the  form 
of  a  drupe)  or  bacciform  (of  the  form  of  a  berry),  indehiscent 
(not  opening  spontaneously  at  maturity);  two  ovules  in  each 
cell,  laterally  fixed  near  the  summit.  Seeds  single  by  abortion, 
of  three  ovules,  rarely  two,  in  each  cell;  seed  albuminous,, 
with  superior  radicle.  Inflorescence  paniculate,  trichotomous 
(divided  in  threes),  or  fasciculate  (growing  in  bunches),  with 
centripetal  primary  branches,  sometimes  centrifugal. 


PEOPAGATION. 


From  Seed. — Propagating  olive  trees  from  seed  is  very 
tedious,  and  requires  extraordinary  care.  The  pits  are  quite 
hard,  often  requiring  from  one  to  two  seasons  to  germinate.  The 
raising  of  olive  plants  from  seed  is  the  most  natural  method, 
and  the  one  producing  the  most  healthy  and  robust  trees,  the 


\ 


12  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

roots  being  more  symmetrical;  but  as  the  plants  make  slow 
growth  the  first  few  years,  a  longer  time  is  required  to  grow 
trees  by  this  method  than  by  any  other.  Trees  grown  from 
seed  seldom  produce  fruit  in  less  than  eight  years,  and  the 
plants  must  be  at  least  two  years  old  before  they  can 
be  budded  or  grafted. 

Those  intending  to  plant  pits  should  carefully  select 
V-  -x     those  from  varieties  having  perfect  kernels.     It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  variety  from   which  the  pits  are 
taken  for  planting  be  one  possessing  high  qualities  for 
pickles  or  oil,  because  all  fruits  when  grown  from  seed 
have  a  tendency  to  revert  to  the  wild  type,  or  become 
of  a  modified  type,  entirely  distinct  from  the  parent 
tree;  but  it  is  important  that  the  tree  be  of  a  thrifty 
J    sort.     Seed  from  dwarf  trees  should  be  avoided,  as  they 
produce  plants  of  a  still  smaller  habit. 

The  seeds,  having  been  freed  from  the  pulp,  are 
[  washed  in  water  containing  some  lye  or  ashes,  to 
remove  all  the  oil  adhering  to  them;  they  are  then 
washed  in  clear  water,  and,  after  drying  in  the  shade, 
are  mixed  with  moist  sand  and  kept  in  a  moistened 
condition  till  spring,  to  be  then  sown.  The  use  of  lye 
is  necessary  to  render  the  shell  of  the  pit  a  little  less 
compact,  in  order  that  it  may  be  penetrated  by  moist- 
ure. The  lye  roughens  the  shell  and  thus  gives  access 
to  humidity. 

The  sowing  is  done  in  February  or  March.  As  olive 
seeds  do  not  all  germinate  the  first  year  of  sowing,  it 
is  advisable  not  to  destroy  the  seed-bed  until  the  end 
of  the  second  year.  Olive  pits  often  continue  to  germi- 
nate in  certain  quantities  for  over  two  years.  In  order 
to  hasten  germination  pits  may  be  advantageously 
split  by  use  of  an  iron  vise.  The  longer  part  of  the 
pit  is  placed  between  the  jaws  of  the  vise,  and  by  turn- 

Ollve  seed-  L  . .          T     . 

ling  plant,  ing  the  screw  the  shell  is  split.     It  is  not  necessary  to 


take  out  the  kernel;   on  the  contrary,  it  is  better  to 
one  naif.)  ieave  it  in  the  cracked  shell. 

The  seeds  are  sown  in  ordinary  seed-boxes,  with  bottoms 
perforated  to  admit  of  good  drainage.  The  boxes  are  then  filled 
with  fine  earth  (sandy  loam)  to  within  three  inches  of  the  top; 
the  kernels  are  spread  on  top  of  this  and  covered  with  one 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  CULTURE. 


PLATE  II. 


V  ^ 


' 


A    / 

\\ 


« 


YOUNG  SEEDLING  OLIVE  PLANTS, 

OF  SPONTANEOUS  GERMINATION,  FROM  SEED  OF  FALLEN  FRUIT,  UNDER 
ORCHARD  TREES. 


14 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


inch  of  sand.  The  boxes  are  kept  moist  and  shaded  for  awhile. 
This  method  obviates  the  necessity  of  soaking  the  pits  in  lye  to 
deprive  them  of  their  oily  coverings,  and  a  person  can  easily 
prepare  some  six  hundred  or  more  kernels  in  a  day. 

Large  Cuttings.— The  olive  "takes"  readily  from  cuttings. 
The  cuttings  preferred  are  those  taken  from'mature  trees  and  are 

made  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  long,  of  two-year  old 
wood,  or  older,  and  from  one 
to  one  and  one  half  inches  in 
diameter.  They  are  taken  from 
the  trees  in  December  or  Janu- 
ary, and  trenched  in  some  con- 
venient place,  preferably  in  the 
shade,  where  they  are  kept  till 
the  middle  of  February  or  the 
middle  of  March,  or  later,  when 
they  are  planted  in  nursery 
rows.  The  ground  is  thorough- 
ly prepared.  The  cuttings  are 
planted  from  twelve  to  thirty 
inches  apart,  and  about  ten  to 
twelve  inches  deep.  The  soil 
is  hoed  toward  them  on  both 
sides,  leaving  the  cuttings  cov- 
ered to  within  an  inch  or  two 
of  the  top,  in  the  center  of  a 
ridge.  The  loose  soil  around 
the  top  protects  the  cuttings 
from  being  scorched  by  the 
sun.  As  the  cuttings  begin  to 
grow,  the  shoots  put  forth 
through  the  loose  soil  and  are  not  disturbed.  They  are 
allowed  to  grow  for  one  season  without  pruning.  The  removal 
of  the  growth  the  first  season  gives  the  cuttings  a  shock 
that  prevents  the  formation  and  growth  of  the  roots.  Many 
growers  plant  cuttings  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees. 
The  season  following  all  shoots  and  growth  are  removed, 
except  one  which  is  to  form  the  tree.  This  one  is  carefully 
trimmed,  and  a  stake  is  driven  close  to  it,  to  which  it  is  tied. 


Cuttings  of  different  sizes,  prepared 
for  planting— reduced. 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  CULTURE. 


PLATE  III. 


THE  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  GROWING  OLIVES  FROM 
SMALL  CUTTINGS— (REDUCED  ONE  HALF). 


16 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


The  portion  of  the  cutting  above  the  apex  of  the  shoot  is  cut 
away,  and  the  wound  covered  with  either  grafting  wax  or 
rubber  paint.  The  cuttings  are  kept  in  the  nursery  as  long 
as  the  grower  chooses,  giving  them  careful  attention,  when 
they  are  taken  up  and  planted  in  orchard  form. 

*"  We  .plant  the  cuttings  fourteen  inches  long  and  from  one 
inch  in  diameter  up  to  two  and  a  half  inches,  six  or  eight 
inches  apart  in  the  nursery  row,  and  the  rows  five  or  six  feet 
apart.  We  also  make  cuttings  three  quarters  of  an  inch;  these 
cuttings  we  plant  in  the  field  where  the  tree  is  to  grow  perma- 
nently. We  plant  diagonally — that  is,  the  top  to  the  north — 
to  keep  the  sunlight  as  much  as  possible  from  cracking  open 
the  limb  that  is  exposed.  We  put  the  cuttings  about  ten  inches 
deep  at  the  foot.  The  cuttings  are  taken  from  the  trees  just  as 
soon  as  we  pick  the  crop." 

Small  Cuttings. — This  method  is  in  all  respects  similar  to 
the  "tip  "  system,  except  that  the  cuttings  are  made  from  small 
branches.  The  branches  must  be  well  matured;  they  are  cut 
into  pieces,  each  containing  at  least  six  leaves.  The  lower 
leaves  are  removed,  as  in  the  "tip"  method,  and  the  upper 


Small  cuttings— reduced  one  half. 

ones  trimmed  off,  as  per  illustrations.  Both  ends  are  cut  off 
close  with  a  sharp  knife,  as  a  clean  cut  hastens  callusing  and 
the  formation  of  rootlets.  The  cuttings  are  taken  from  the 
trees  in  autumn  and  winter  and  are  planted  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  the  "tip"  method. 

*Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  Santa  Barbara. 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  CULTURE. 


PLATE  IV. 


i  1 


t\ 


ONE-YEAR-OLD  OLIVE   PLANTS. 

GROWN  FROM  "Tip"  CUTTINGS,  SHOWING  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ROOT 
SYSTEM.    (Reduced.) 


2oc 


17 


18  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

From  Tips. — The  extreme  ends  or  tips  of  branches  are 
taken  from  the  trees  in  June,  when  the  trees  are  in  a  semi- 
dormant  state,  and  also  in  the  fall  and  winter,  according 
to  state  of  the  trees,  when  the  growth  is  in  its  best  condi- 
tion. The  cuttings  are  made  about  four  to  six  inches  long,  as 
per  illustration.  These  tips  are  gathered  indiscriminately, 
by  cutting  them  with  pruning  shears,  and  taken  to  a  bench, 
where  they  are  prepared  for  planting.  In  their  prepara- 
tion a  sharp  knife  is  used.'tlThe  lower  leaves  are  cut  off  close 
to  the  bud,  and  the  ends  of  the  cuttings  are  cut  obliquely,  to 
within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  lower  buds.  The  upper 

t  leaves  are  trimmed  to  prevent  them  from  car- 
rying off  rapidly  the  fluids  by  evaporation,  and 
A  to   prolong    the   life   of    the 

cuttings  until  callused  and 
iifa'  I        rootlets    are    formed.      The 
JH/     /        cuttings  are  placed  close  in 
\$  2k  /          sand-beds     especially     pre- 
pared or  in  ordinary  propa- 
gating-boxes.     Propagating- 
houses  with  bottom  heat  are 
preferred.       The     following 
winter  they  are  transplanted 
into  pots  or  in  nursery  row. 

From    Suckers.  —  Shoots 

Tip  cuttings— reduced  one  half. 

that  germinate  spontane- 
ously between  the  roots,  at  their  insertion  on  the  trunk,  on  the 
trunk  itself,  and  on  the  large  roots  exposed  to  the  sun,  are 
termed  "  suckers."  These  suckers  when  properly  developed 
are  turned  to  advantage  for  propagation.  These  shoots  are 
left  to  grow  at  will  for  awhile;  then  the  trunk  of  the  tree  is 
banked  up  with  earth,  so  as  to  cause  the  suckers  to  take  root, 
which  they  generally  emit  at  their  base.  They  are  pulled  off 
the  parent  tree  in  the  winter,  with  a  good  portion  of  roots 
attached;  are  then  trimmed  and  planted  in  nursery,  and  in  a 
season  become  good  trees  and  fit  for  orchard  planting. 

By  Layering  or  Stools. — This  is  the  only  system  which 
can  be  said  to  be  perfectly  safe  in  the  propagation  of  olive 
trees.  There  are  no  risks  to  be  encountered,  and  in  two  or 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — SOILS.  19 

three  seasons  large,  trees  ready  for  planting  are  obtained.  For 
this  purpose  old  stocks  are  planted,  the  body  being  cut  off  to 
cause  it  to  throw  out  numerous  shoots,  which,  when  they  are  of 
sufficient  growth,  are  turned  down  and  trenched.  Growers 
adopt  different  modes  of  treating  the  shoots  in  layering  them. 
Some  cause  the  shoot  to  be  partly  broken  by  bending,  while  others 
cut  an  incision,  leaving  a  projecting  portion  of  the  shoot  on 
the  side  that  is  to  remain  downward  when  covered  with  soil. 
At  any  rate,  the  portion  wherever  broken  or  cut  soon  begins 
to  callus  over  and  to  throw  out  roots.  In  one  or  two  seasons 
these  shoots  are  cut  from  the  parent  tree,  the  roots  and  top 
trimmed,  and  are  set  out  either  in  orchard  or  in  nursery  row. 

From  Sprouts. — The  sprouts  as  they  put  forth  along  the 
body  of  the  tree,  which  has  been  cut  back  so  as  to  force  it  to 
throw  out  numerous  shoots,  are  gouged  out,  taking  as  much 
of  the  bark  and  wood  as  possible.  These  are  planted  as  in 
the  above  methods,  and  readily  take  root.  The  advantage 
this  system  has  over  all  others  is  that  these  sprouts  can 
be  gathered  at  any  time  of  the  year  when  the  trees  are 
growing.  This  method  is  closely  allied  to  the  "ovule"  system 
of  propagation. 


SOILS. 


A  great  feature  of  the  olive  tree,  and  one  that  gives  it  an 
important  position  among  the  fruit  trees  of  our  State,  is  the 
fact  that  it  thrives  in  a  greater  diversity  of  soils  and  locations 
than  most  other  trees.  In  the  low  lands  of  the  valleys  it 
does  well ;  the  berries  become  large  and  pulpy,  and  are  best 
suited  for  pickles.  Oil  made  from  fruit  grown  on  trees  receiv- 
ing too  much  moisture  is  very  hard  to  clarify.  Along  the  foot- 
hills the  olive  finds  a  congenial  home,  producing  oil  that  cannot 
be  excelled.  On  rocky  land,  wherever  there  is  soil  sufficient  to 
give  it  a  footing,  the  olive  will  grow,  and  with  additional  care 
attains  perfection.  Heavy  or  damp  land  is  not  suitable  for 
it— not  that  it  will  not  grow  on  such  soils,  but  because  the 
blossom  and  the  fruit  are  sensitive  to  cold  and  will  invari- 
ably chill  and  drop  off  the  tree.  The  quality  of  the  oil  from 


20 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


injured  berries  is  also  affected.  The  theory  for  many  years 
advanced,  to  the  effect  that  the  olive  would  grow  and  produce 
bountiful  crops  on  soil  too  poor  to  grow  anything  else,  or  on 
soil  and  in  locations  where  other  trees  would  not  grow,  has 
been  exploded.  While  the  olive  does  thrive  on  rugged  soils 
and  in  locations  where  other  fruit  could  not  be  found  profitable, 
it  must  not  be  supposed  that  it  does  well  under  neglect  or  will 
not  repay  care.  Careful  cultivation  and  proper  fertilization 
are  amply  rewarded  in  increased  quantity  and  superior  quality 
of  fruit. 

Analyses  made  of  the  ashes  of  the  wood,  leaves,  and  fruit  of 
the  olive  give  the  following  results  • 


Potash          ... 

Wood. 
20.60 

Leaves. 
24.81 

Fruit. 
54.03 

Lime 

63.02 

56.18 

15.72 

Magnesia 

2.31 

5.18 

4.38 

Sulphuric  acid          .     

3.09 

3.01 

1.19 

Silica  

3.82 

3.75 

5.58 

Phosphoric  acid 

4.77 

3.24 

7.30 

Phosphate  of  iron    ... 

1.39 

1.07 

2.24 

Chloride  of  potassium  

1.00 

2.76 

9.56 

Totals  ..  100.00 


100.00        100.00 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  analysis  that  the  wood  and  leaves 
carry  a  very  large  proportion  of  lime,  while  in  the  berries 
potash  predominates  greatly.  From  this  it  will  naturally  be 
inferred  that  soil  suitable  for  the  olive  should  be  heavily 
impregnated  with  these  elements,  or,  being  absent,  they  will 
have  to  be  supplied. 

The  olive  will  not  do  well  in  poorly  drained  soil,  for  while 
it  requires  a  proper  amount  of  moisture,  the  tree  cannot  thrive 
with  its  roots  in  standing  water.  . 

To  summarize,  the  olive  will  do  best  in  a  soft,  friable  soil, 
moderately  warm  and  moist,  carrying  an  abundance  of  lime 
and  potash.  These  conditions  are  furnished  throughout  a 
greater  portion  of  California,  where  also  can  be  found  the 
climatic  conditions  required  by  it. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil.— Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil 
for  the  olive  should  be  the  rule,  and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  so  far  as  the  planting  of  the  orchard  is  concerned,  it 
is  done  forever.  When  the  young  tree  is  transferred  to  the 
orchard  it  receives  a  shock,  to  recover  from  which  it  requires 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — SOILS.  21 

the  most  tender  care.  If  planted  on  land  which  £as  been  well 
prepared  for  it — well  loosened,  properly  aerated,  and  thor- 
oughly pulverized — the  young  rootlets  find  no  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  their  extension,  and  the  tree  soon  recovers  and  makes 
a  vigorous  growth.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  land  has 
been  merely  skimmed  over  with  the  plow  and  the  subsoil  left 
untouched,  the  young  roots  are  checked  in  their  growth,  and 
the  trees  receive  a  setback  from  which  they  seldom  recover. 
The  first  year  of  its  life  in  the  orchard  determines  the  whole 
future  of  the  tree,  and  whether  it  shall  be  a  success  or  a  failure 
depends  largely  upon  the  preparation  of  the  land  for  its 
reception. 

Cultivation. — The  application  of  suitable  fertilizers  at  proper 
times  is  an  important  factor  in  successful  olive  culture., 
The  fertilizers  should  be  selected  with  a  view  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  tree,  as  indicated  by  the  analyses  of  fruit,  wood, 
and  leaf,  given  elsewhere.  While  the  olive  rejoices  in  the 
natural  looseness  of  sandy,  gravelly,  and  stony  soils,  and 
in  freedom  from  standing  water,  it  is  not  of  the  class  of  trees 
that  do  best  in  sterile  soils.  Nutriment  is  necessary  to  its 
productiveness,  and  if  this  does  not  exist  naturally  in  the  soil, 
or  has  been  exhausted,  it  must  be  supplied.  In  growing  olives, 
as  with  all  other  crops,  the  continuous  cropping  of  the  soil 
will  gradually  exhaust  it  of  the  constituent  elements  of  the 
plant,  and  these  must  be  supplied  from  some  source.  Anything 
that  can  be  used  to  enrich  the  soil  is  valuable.  The  orchard 
should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  which  sap  the  soil  of  its 
moisture,  and  the  surface  of  the  ground  should  be  kept  well 
pulverized. 

*"I  need  not  say  to  any  horticulturist  that  cultivation  can- 
not be  too  thorough;  good  tilth  is  an  exhibition  of  'faith  and 
work,'  which  comes  very  near  being  an  absolute  guarantee  of 
success.  But  even  this  will  not  in  all  places  succeed  without 
another  artificial  help,  viz,  water,  for  it  is  the  exception  and 
not  the  rule  where  olive  trees  will  do  their  best  without  irriga- 
tion; and  wherever  nearly  perfect  conditions  do  not  naturally 
exist,  and  irrigation  is  resorted  to  to  establish  such  conditions, 
it  has  become  nearly  or  quite  an  established  fact  that  for  each 

*Hon.  Frank  A.  Kimball,  of  National  City. 


22  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

dollar  so  expended  at  least  ten  dollars  may  be  expected  in 
increased  growth  and  quantity  of  fruit. 

"  When  taken  from  the  nursery  (at  two  years  from  planting 
of  cutting),  planted  in  orchard  and  properly  cared  for,  the  olive 
tree  should  pay  all  expenses  of  cultivation  the  third  year.  There 
are  instances  on  record  where  cuttings  planted  in  orchard  have 
produced  sufficient  fruit  the  third  year  to  pay  all  expenses  of 
cultivation  for  that  year;  but  this  is  not  a  safe  basis  for  calcu- 
lation, for  it  is  only  with  large  cuttings,  taken  from  vigorous 
trees,  and  planted  in  a  voluptuous  soil  and  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions,  that  such  a  result  may  be  obtained. 

"In  selecting  a  location  for  an  olive  plantation,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  secure  a  well-drained  tract,  for  there  is  no 
one  thing  which  will  so  militate  against  success  as  a  close, 
clayey  soil  with  imperfect  drainage. 

"  Exposure  also  cuts  an  important  figure  in  the  profits  to  be 
derived  from  an  olive  orchard.  A  southern  exposure  hastens 
maturity  of  the  fruit,  and  it  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  that 
when  the  olive  approaches  ripeness  it  must  be  gathered,  if  first 
quality  of  oil  be  expected;  true,  the  quantity  of  oil  is  much 
less,  but  the  quality  is  much  finer  than  that  pressed  from  fully 
matured  fruit.  A  northerly  exposure  will  prolong  the  period 
of  ripening  many  weeks;  so,  by  selecting  land  having  both  a 
northerly  and  a  southerly  exposure,  a  person,  by  his  own  labor, 
can  harvest  at  least  one  half  more  fruit  than  if  either  one  of  the 
exposures  were  selected.  It  is  often  said  that  any  kind  of  soil 
is  good  enough  for  olive  trees,  and  inferentially  that  the  poorer 
the  soil  the  more  profitable  the  crop.  If  this  be  so,  it  is  con- 
trary to  all  other  efforts  of  nature  of  which  I  have  any  knowl- 
edge; but  it  is  not  so.  But  it  is  a  substantial  fact,  however, 
that  an  olive  orchard  which  has  long  been  cropped,  poorly 
cultivated,  and  not  fertilized,  will  make  a  record  for  unprofit- 
ableness which  the  owner  may  not  long  disregard.  In  such 
cases,  generous  fertilizing  and  good  cultivation  will  cause  a 
response  which  cannot  be  mistaken.  Good  location  and  good 
soil  are  two  elements  which  will  act  as  large  factors  in  success- 
ful olive- growing. 

"  We  labor  under  peculiar  conditions  in  California.  As  a 
rule,  we  do  not  care  to  see  a  drop  of  rain  from  the  first  of  May 
to  the  first  of  December.  During  what  is  termed  the  l  rainy 
season,'  and  after  any  considerable  fall  of  rain,  the  ground 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE   CULTURE — IN    POOR    SOILS.  23 

should  be  thoroughly  'cultivated,'  or  plowed  and  harrowed; 
and  after  the  '  rainy  season '  is  over,  the  surface  of  the  ground 
should  be  well  stirred  at  least  once  each  month,  so  that  it  may 
be  in  perfect  condition  to  absorb  atmospheric  moisture  during 
the  l  dry  season '  and  be  all  ready  for  the  first  rain  of  the  suc- 
ceeding 'rainy  season.'  Two  purposes  are  thus  accomplished: 
the  land  is  kept  in  good  tilth,  and  no  weeds  can  raise  their 
unsightly  and  unprofitable  heads." 


OLIVES  IN  POOE  SOILS. 


When  olive  culture  was  in  its  incipiency  almost  every  one 
contemplating  going  into  the  business  sought  information 
from  "him  that  knew,"  and  was  ever  ready  to  follow  his 
advice.  The  advice,  then  so  freely  given,  that  "the  olive 
should  be  planted  on  soils  where  no  other  tree  would  grow," 
was  followed  to  a  considerable  extent;  but  now  all  regret  it,  as 
that  advice  proved  to  be  erroneous  and  misleading,  and  caused 
the  financial  ruin  of  many  who  took  it.  The  olive,  as  do  other 
trees,  requires  the  best  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  etc.,  and 
without  these,  paying  returns  from  the  tree  cannot  be  expected. 
None  of  the  orchards  that  were  planted  in  locations  where 
hardly  anything  else  would  grow,  as  was  advised,  have  as  yet 
produced  fruit  to  pay  for  their  cultivation,  and  in  most 
instances  have  not  produced  fruit  enough  to  pay  for  the 
gathering;  but  where  the  trees  have  been  given  renewed  atten- 
tion by  way  of  pruning,  irrigation,  fertilization,  etc.,  they  have 
invariably  responded  by  producing  bountiful  crops.  In  many 
sections  trees  planted  on  poor  soils  were  unable  to  withstand 
the  drought  of  the  past  two  seasons.  They  shed  their  foliage 
and  the.  limbs  died  back,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration  (p.  24). 

There  are  lands,  especially  in  the  coast  regions,  that  retain 
their  moisture,  which  by  thorough  cultivation  do  not  require 
to  be  irrigated.  To  soils  that  are  not  retentive,  in  which  olive 
orchards  have  been  planted,  by  advice  that  the  tree  would 
grow  and  thrive  without  irrigatiop,  these  remarks  apply. 


24 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


In  1893  the  writer  gave  to  the  public  the  result  of  experiments 
to  develop  large  olives  by  frequent  irrigation.  No  sooner  was 
mention  made  by  the  public  press  of  the  results  attained  than 
criticisms  began  to  appear  against  irrigation,  based  on  the 
theory  that  the  tree  did  not  require  it.  Specimens  of  fruit 
taken  from  young  trees  grown  without  irrigation  were  brought 
to  meetings.  The  writer  then  said  that  the  trees  from 
which  the  fruit  was  taken  were  small  and  took  but  little 
moisture  to  nourish  them,  but  as  they  would  grow  older  would 
cease  to  bear  fruit  in  paying  quantities  unless  irrigated.  What 


An  orchard  planted  on  poor  soil;  did  not  withstand  the  drought  of  1898-9. 

was  the  result  ?  The  trees  on  becoming  large,  required  the 
necessary  moisture  to  develop  their  growth,  which  had  now 
assumed  immense  proportions.  The  soil  could  not  furnish  the 
requirements  of  the  trees,  and  in  the  summer  they  lost  the  larger 
portion  of  their  leaves.  They  remained  in  this  semi-dormant 
condition  until  the  rainy  season  set  in,  or  moisture  in  the  soil 
began  to  rise.  Most  of  the  fruit  dropped,  and  what  did  not  fall 
did  not  attain  a  size  suitable  for  pickling.  This  condition 
of  affairs  continued  until  the  growers  resolved  to  apply  water. 
After  a  season  or  more  of  demonstration,  they  found  irrigation 
to  be  one  of  the  essential  means  through  which  a  crop  of  fruit 
can  be  assured. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — UNFRUITFULNESS.  25 

*UA  popular  idea  is,  that  if  land  is  not  fit  for  anything  else 
it  will  do  for  olives.  I  do  not  think  so.  They  have  a  saying 
in  Italy,  'No  manure,  no  oil.'  The  reason  why  we  do  not  get 
olives  is,  the  trees  are  starved,  if  want  of  water  can  be  called 
starvation.  For  lack  of  water  the  soil  cannot  furnish  the 
material  from  which  the  olive  is  made.  I  have  seen  trees 
which  were  able  to  and  did  bear  fifteen  gallons  of  fine  fruit, 
while  fifty  feet  from  them  there  were  other  olive  trees,  of  the 
same  size  and  age,  and  which  bloomed  quite  as  profusely,  and 
in  which  every  physical  and  natural  condition  was  the  same, 
that  did  not  produce  fifteen  quarts,  I  might  say,  fifteen  pints, 
of  olives.  Cause,  starvation;  and  I  have  no  doubt,  if  they 
had  had  a  proper  quantity  of  water,  at  the  proper  time,  as  the 
others  had,  they  would  have  produced  as  much  fruit  as  the 
others  did.  Irrigation  without  cultivation  is  quite  as  unsatis- 
factory in  results  as  no  irrigation.  I  saw  an  olive  orchard 
flooded  with  water;  the  land  was  not  cultivated  afterward,  and 
thus  the  water  was  carried  off  by  evaporation,  the  earth  becom- 
ing baked  and  as  hard  as  adobe  bricks;  result,  in  August  the 
olives  shriveled  until  they  were  little  larger  than  the  pits 
should  have  been,  almost  no  pulp,  so  little  in  fact  that  188' 
pounds  of  fruit  were  required  for  a  gallon  of  oil.  I  do  not 
know  of  any  soil  that  would  not  produce  a  good  olive  if  it  had 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  This  is  a  solution  of  the  whole 
question.  With  facilities  for  proper  irrigation,  I  would  not 
hesitate  to  plant  any  ordinary  soil  with  olive  trees,  and  would 
expect  as  a  result  as  many  olives  as  the  tree  should  bear. 
Nor  must  it;  be  forgotten  that  good  drainage  is  quite  as 
important  as  irrigation.  They  go  'hand  in  hand.'  " 


UNFRUITFULNESS  OF  THE  OLIVE. 


The  question  of  the  unproductiveness  of  the  olive  tree  in  cer- 
tain localities  is  at  present  agitating  the  minds  of  many  growers 
throughout  the  State;  several  orchards,  although  old  enough 
to  bear,  not  yet  having  given  remunerative  returns,  and  others 

*  Hon.  Frank  A.  Kimball,  in  Report  of  Third  Olive-Growers'  Convention 
(1893),  p.  29. 


26  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

that  bloom  profusely  but  only  setting  few  fruits,  being  cited  as 
instances.  The  behavior  of  the  olive  in  this  respect  is  not  new, 
and  has  been  understood  for  ages  and  is  due  to  many  causes, 
but  primarily  to  the  improper  management  of  the  tree,  imper- 
fect bloom,  deficient  pollen,  the  ravages  of  the  black  scale, 
propagating  from  unfruitful  sorts,  and  lastly  to  weakened 
fruit  buds  caused  by  excessive  spraying  with  strong  caustic 
and  crude  oily  materials,  and  fumigating  with  gases  too  strong 
for  the  buds.  While  spraying  and  fumigating  at  times 
become  essential  for  subduing  the  black  scale,  to  which  the  tree 
is  subject,  especially  in  the  coast  regions  or  in  localities  of 
humid  atmospheric  conditions,  unless  used  with  moderation 
and  applied  at  the  proper  time  they  cause  the  weakening  of 
the  fruit  buds  and  retard  their  fruiting  power.  In  my  investi- 
gations I  have  often  found  olive-growers  spraying  either  at  the 
wrong  time  or  with  materials  that  not  only  injured  the  buds 
very  materially,  but  had  no  effect  whatever  on  the  insects. 
Such  condition  of  affairs  exists  everywhere,  and  the  trees  are 
treated  from  one  to  three  times  a  season.  Can  it  be  wondered, 
then,  that  the  trees  fail  to  set  their  bloom  with  all  these 
hinderances,  rather  than  being  encouraged  in  healthfulness 
looking  toward  a  profitable  production? 

Buds  weakened  by  any  cause  put  forth  weak  peduncles, 
which  wither  and  lose  hold  before  the  flowers  that  are  attached 
to  them  have  developed.  The  flowers  also  develop  unnaturally, 
lacking  fertilizing  power,  and  either  wither  and  fall  before  fer- 
tilization takes  place,  or  never  open,  thus  failing  to  set  fruit. 

Trees  grown  from  seed  have  a  tendency  to  revert  to  the 
wild  type,  or  a  type  entirely  distinct,  some  of  which  fruit, 
while  others  seldom  do.  The  character  is  also  changed  by 
pollen  impulse. 

There  are  a  great  many  trees  distributed  among  the  mis- 
sions throughout  the  State,  that,  for  natural,  unexplained 
causes,  have  never  as  yet  produced  fruit  in  any  quantity,  the 
tendency  of  the  trees  being  to  throw  their  growth  to  foliage 
instead.  Many  orchardists  seeking  stock  for  propagating  pur- 
poses planted  cuttings  in  large  numbers  from  such  shy-bearing 
trees,  and  trees  grown  therefrom  have  been  distributed  indis- 
criminately throughout  the  State.  Such  trees  have  proved  a 
great  disappointment,  for  they  have  not  yet  produced  fruit  to 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE   CULTURE — UNFRUITFULNESS.  27 

pay  for  their  culture,  and  no  doubt  never  will,  at  least  their 
parents  do  not. 

Almost  every  variety  of  olive  known  to  the  Old  World  has 
been  imported  into  the  State  and  planted  indiscriminately 
before  the  fruiting  qualities  were  tested  or  the  adaptability 
to  our  soil  and  climate  shown.  Several  of  these  have  not  yet 
produced  fruit  in  any  quantity,  while  others  are  very  shy 
bearers.  Many  of  these  varieties  fruit  for  awhile  when  the 
trees  are  young,  but  on  becoming  older  seem  to  degenerate  and 
cease  to  bear  fruit,  the  branches  dying  in  the  center  and  the 
energies  of  the  tree  being  wasted  in  the  production  of  growth 
rather  than  of  fruit.  Some  of  these  varieties  are  also  deficient 
in  sexual  strength  of  the  bloom,  not  having  the  fertilizing 
power  essential  for  the  setting  of  the  fruit.  For  several  seasons 
I  have  observed  in  orchards,  in  many  portions  of  the  State, 
little  clusters  of  berries  about  half  the  size  of  peas.  On  opening 
these  berries  the  inside  was  found  to  be  full  of  a  gumlike 
substance,  and  •  without  a  pit,  showing  deficiency  in  pollen 
strength.  Other  berries,  about  the  same  size  or  larger,  with 
pits,  being  the  result  of  late  blooming.  In  many  such  trees 
clusters  of  dried-up  blossoms  are  often  found  without  any 
visible  pollen  in  the  flowers,  which  had  died  for  want  of  fertili- 
zation. The  behavior  in  the  fruiting  of  the  greater  portion 
of  the  olive  varieties  so  largely  introduced  has  yet  to  be  studied 
and  experimented  upon.  That  all  varieties,  irrespective  of  the 
climatic  and  soil  conditions  of  the  locations  from  which 
imported,  planted  in  a  locality  with  conditions  entirely  dis- 
similar, should  be  expected  to  become  eminently  successful, 
has  long  ago  been  proven  to  be -a  fallacy. 

With  regard  to  the  "Mission"  olive,  its  non-bearing  behavior 
is  easily  understood.  It  requires,  above  all  things,  to  be  kept 
in  as  clean  and  thrifty  condition  as  possible.  The  black  scale 
must  be  freed  from  it,  and  the  trees  must  be  properly  fertilized 
and  cultivated.  Once  the  tree  becomes  infested  with  the  black 
scale  the  smut  produced  from  the  excrement  of  this  insect  will 
cover  the  breathing  functions  of  both  leaf  and  branch,  and  the 
tendency  of  the  tree  will  then  be  to  leaf  growth  instead  of  to 
fruit.  The  tree-,  however,  may  bloom  profusely,  but,  being 
sensitive  to  the  fungus,  the  stems  to  which  the  flowers  are 
attached  become  weakened,  lose  hold,  wither,  and  drop  before 
fertilization  takes  place.  These  natural  conditions  no  doubt 


28  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

also  apply  with  equal  force  to  other  varieties.  Pruning  to 
encourage  the  formation  of  fruit-bearing  wood  also  becomes 
very  essential. 

Aside  from  the  causes  already  mentioned,  are  the  following 
reasons  why  the  olive  fails  to  produce  a  crop  in  paying  quan- 
tities: 

1.  Unsuitable  soil  selection,  not  naturally  well  drained,  hav- 
ing a  strata  of  "  harjlpan  "  or  clayey,  uncongenial  conditions 
for  roots  too  close  to  the  surface.     Soil  not  of  ample  richness, 
of  too  high  or  too  low  altitude. 

2.  Planting  on  sites  too  much  exposed,  without  giving  the 
trees  protection  by  planting  others  to  serve  as  windbreaks,  etc. 

3.  The  existence  of   a  frost   line.     Frost   during  blooming 
period  is  very   detrimental   to  the   setting   of  the  fruit,    and 
in  the  fall  and  early  winter  to  the  fruit,  especially  during  its 
tender  period  or  first  stages  of  ripening. 

4.  Planting   varieties  .  of    indiscriminate   selection,  without 
regard  to  locality,  adaptability,  or  the  suitableness  of  stocks 
used,  etc. 

5.  Planting  trees  too  deep  or  too  shallow,  which  everywhere 
has  proved  a  grave  mistake. 

6.  Planting  too  close.     Trees,  after  becoming  large,  require 
abundance  of  soil  of  which  there  is  not  enough  for  the  roots  of 
all.      Also,  the  shade  from  adjoining  trees  is  very  detrimental. 

7.  Lack   of   fertilizers — failing   to   supply  the   elements   of 
nutrition  needed  to  secure  healthy  growth  of  trees,  that  the 
particular  soil  may  lack,  whether  in  a  virgin  state  or  after  the 
growth  of  trees  has  exhausted  same. 

8.  Want  of   proper  pruning,  such  as  the  trees   may  need 
under  varying  conditions,  especially  to  encourage  fruit-bearing 
wood. 

9.  Injudicious  cultivation,  such  as  cutting  the  fibrous  roots 
just  before  a  dry  spell,  or  during  blooming  time. 

10.  Want  of  cultivation,  allowing  the  weeds  to  grow,  when 
the  tree  roots  should  have  the  soil  to  themselves,  especially  in 
dry  weather,  or  allowing  the  soil  to  become  dry  after  plowing, 
without  breaking  up  the  clods  and  pulverizing  the  ground. 

11.  Endeavoring  to  get  two  or  more  crops  out  of  the  same 
ground  by  growing  other  plants  between  and  more  or  less  close 
to  the  trees,  which  is  detrimental  to  both. 

12.  Allowing  the  trees  to  become  infested  with  the  black 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — TRANSPLANTING.  29 

scale,  the  fungus  produced  by  the  excrement  of  which  clogs  up 
the  breathing  functions  of  the  tree  and  retards  the  growth  of 
both  tree  and  fruit. 


TRANSPLANTING. 


Olive  trees  are  transplanted  from  the  nursery  to  orchard 
form  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  varying  from  February  to 
April,  according  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  locality. 
There  are  three  methods  pursued  in  preparing  the  trees.  One 
is  to  take  up  the  tree  with  the  utmost  care,  trimming  all  the 
shoots  along  the  body  of  the  tree  to  within  four  or  six  inches  of 
their  base.  The  tree  puts  forth  new  shoots  at  the  apex  of  those 
cut  back,  which  in  time  form  a  symmetrical  top.  Another 
method  is  to  cut  the  main  stock  to  within  twelve  or  fourteen 
inches  of  the  ground,  so  that  the  tree  becomes  low-trained  in 
the  form  of  a  bush.  The  third  method  consists  of  shaping  the 
tree  in  the  nursery  and  transplanting  it  without  removing  any 
of  the  foliage.  It  is  taken  up  with  earth  adhering  to  the  roots 
and  is  not  allowed  to  grow  too  large  (in  the  nursery)  as  the 
larger  the  tree  the  more  difficult  the  operation. 

*  •'  In   transplanting   olive   trees   from   the   nursery  to  the 
orchard  the  roots  and  tops  should  be  protected  as  much  as 
possible   from  the  sun  and  wind.     The  work  should   not  be 
done  when   a  dry  wind  is  prevailing.     The   trees  should   be 
taken   up  in  as  dormant  a  condition  as  possible.     They  are 
usually  in  this  state  in  January  and  February.     If  it  is  not 
convenient  to  plant  them  then,  they  may  be  taken  up  before 
they  commence  to  grow  and  heeled-in  and  set  out  later  in  the 
season.     At  the  time  of  planting,  the  soil  should  be  settled 
around  the  roots  with  water.     The  olive  tree  is  very  tenacious 
of  life,  and  may  be  successfully  transplanted  at  one  year  of  age 
up  to  the  size  of  large  bearing  trees,  this  having  been  done 
often.     Although  most  varieties  are  apt  to  grow  unshapely  in 
the  nursery,  they  become  symmetrical  after  being  out  in  the 
orchard  two  or  three  years.     As  some  of  the  roots  are  cut  off 
in  digging,  some  of  the  branches  should  be  removed  at  the  time- 

*  John  S.  Calkins,  of  Pomona. 


30  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

of  planting;  after  this  but  little  pruning  will  be  necessary  till 
they  begin  to  bear." 

*"In  planting  an  olive  orchard,  select  two  or  more  varieties 
ripening  at  different  times,  which  will  give  more  time  to 
harvest  and  handle  the  crop.  Planters  will  find  it  to  their 
advantage  to  plant  two-year-old  trees,  or  older;  the  roots  of 
the  one-year-old  trees  are  too  tender  and* immature  to  transplant 
without  danger  of  losing  a  large  percentage  of  the  trees.  The 
utmost  care  should  be  observed,  from  the  time  the  trees  are  taken 
from  the  nursery  until  they  are  planted  in  the  orchard,  to  keep 
the  roots  protected  from  the  sunlight  and  air;  never  allowing 
the  roots  to  become  dry  in  transplanting.  Because  the  olive  is 
called  a  very  hardy  tree,  many  planters  are  careless  in  trans- 
planting, thereby  losing  many  trees  which  could  have  been  saved 
with  little  care.  Too  often  the  nurseryman  is  censured  for  the 
loss.  The  roots  of  the  olive  tree  are  very  sensitive  and  tender, 
more  so  than  of  any  other  tree  I  have  ever  handled;  still,  with 
a  very  little  trouble  it  can  be  moved  with  as  little  loss  as 
other  fruit  trees.  Often,  after  planting,  the  tree  will  lose  all 
its  leaves  and  remain  dormant  until  the  following  year;  if  the 
bark  remains  green  it  will  come  out  all  right  and  do  well. 
The  olive  is  a  slow  tree  to  start,  but  once  started  it  makes  a 
vigorous  growth.  If  part  of  the  top  shows  signs  of  withering 
and  dying,  it  should  be  cut  off,  to  prevent  the  sour  sap  from 
poisoning  the  balance  of  the  tree.  I  have  kept  olive  trees 
heeled-in  for  eight  and  ten  weeks,  losing  very  few  trees,  but  this 
should  be  done  only  to  hold  the  trees  dormant  for  late  planting. 
The  less  handling  they  can  have  and  the  sooner  they  can  be 
planted  after  taking  from  the  nursery,  the  less  danger  there  is 
from  the  roots  becoming  dry,  which  always  occasions  loss;  but 
if  properly  packed  they  can  be  safely  shipped  long  distances. 
The  trees  should  be  severely  pruned  when  transplanted.  My 
plan  is  to  cut  the  main  stalk  back  from  a  third  to  a  half, 
according  to  the  height  of  the  tree,  and  to  cut  all  branches  back 
to  three  inches,  and  to  plant  the  tree  from  six  to  twelve  inches 
deeper  than  it  was  set  in  the  nursery.  The  most  successful 
olive  men  plant  deep.  Deep  planting  would  prove  disastrous 
to  fruit  trees,  but  the  orchardist  will  not  find  it  so  with  the 
olive,  provided  he  keeps  the  ground  well  loosened  about  the 
body  of  the  tree.  With  the  short  pruning  and  deep  planting, 

*P.  M.  Hunt,  of  Redlands.  • 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — TRANSPLANTING.  31 

I  know  many  will  say  there  is  not  much  left  for  show,  which  is 
all  very  true,  but  I  can  assure  you  the  result  will  prove  very 
satisfactory;  the  per  cent  of  loss  will  be  much  less,  and  at  the 
end  of  two  years  they  will  be  far  ahead  of  trees  planted  shal- 
low with  full  tops  and  branches.  By  this  plan  I  have  taken 
olive  trees  from  the  nursery  and  planted  them  as  late  in  the 
season  as  May,  with  splendid  success.  But  I  would  advise 
planting  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible,  and  when  the  trees 
are  dormant,  January  and  February  being  the  two  best  months. 
By  planting  early  we  have  the  benefit  of  the  winter  rains  to 
settle  the  soil  about  the  roots;  settling  the  soil  about  the  roots 
with  water  is  better  than  tramping." 

*uln  planting  a  young  tree  it  is  better  not  to  disturb  any 
growing  limbs  or  branches,  because  cutting  them  when  the 
tree  is  young  interferes  with  the  roots,  and  the  orchardist  will 
understand  that  if  he  cuts  away  the  limbs  and  destroys  the 
leaves  he  is  destroying  the  breathing  apparatus  of  the  roots. 
An  untrimmed  olive  tree  when  small  and  commencing  to  root 
will  grow  four  times  as  fast  without  pruning  than  if  pruned. 
The  more  top  it  has  the  faster  it  will  grow,  for  it  feeds  largely 
from  the  leaves— from  moisture.  After  the  second  year, 
though,  it  must  be  pruned.  Those  who  cultivate  the  young 
tree  up  to  five  and  a  half  or  six  feet  must,  of  course,  pinch  off 
all  the  branches  that  are  making  wood  rapidly,  so  as  to  force 
the  strength  into  one  main  trunk.  When  lateral  limbs  branch 
out  pinch  them  off  at  the  end  and  stop  the  growth,  but  all  small 
branches  should  be  left  alone  as  much  as  possible  until  the  tree 
gets  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  and  then  commence  cutting  them 
off.  Those  who  want  to  prune  low  should  start  the  trees  out 
from  four  to  six  inches  from  the  ground  and  form  four  or  five 
main  branches  instead  of  one.  I  am  not  in  favor  of  low  pruning 
of  the  olive  in  the  coast  counties.  We  have  no  fear  of  the 
sunlight  burning  the  bark.  In  ten  years  high  pruning  will 
give  twice  as  much  tree  as  low  pruning.  It  grows  up  to  a  bush 
more  than  a  tree,  and  these  shoots  vie  with  each  other  to  get 
up  to  sunlight.  If  the  planter  pinches  them  off  up  to  four  or 
five  feet  he  can  form  a  much  better  tree.'' 


Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  of  Santa  Barbara. 


32  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

PRUNING. 


There  are  in  vogue  in  this  State  various  systems  of  pruning 
the  olive,  each  differing  materially  as  to  the*  variety  and  as  to 
the  shape  of  the  tree,  but  all  with  the  one  object  in  view,  i.  e.,  the 
increase  of  growth  and  production.  Each  system  requires  study, 
and  it  depends  a  great  deal  upon  circumstances.  After  the  for- 
mation of  the  tree,  the  chief  thing  to  consider  is  that  the  fruit  is 
borne  only  on  two-year-old  branches,  which,  when  they  have 
once  produced  fruit,  never  do  so  again.  Trees  are  liable  to 
suffer  by  injudicious  pruning  of  fruit-bearing  branches  or  by 
excessive  lopping.  Therefore,  pruning  must  consist  in  cutting 
away  the  superfluous  and  useless  growth  and  dead  wood  to 
give  light  and  air  and  make  room  for  fresh  and  fruitful  twigs 
and  shoots. 

FORMS  OF  TREE  PRUNING. 

Natural  Habit. — This  form  consists  of  leaving  the  tree  to 
take  its  natural  form,  and  to  obtain  well-balanced  trees  their 
formation  begins  at  planting.  The  trees  are  not  shorn  of  their 
top,  but  it  is  allowed  to  grow  and  become  the  leader,  which 
with  the  side  or  lateral  branches  soon  form  a  symmetrical  tree. 
The  trees  are  carefully  thinned.  Branches  on  the  outside 
extending  beyond  the  symmetry  of  the  main  foliage  are 
pinched  back  during  the  growing  period.  Limbs  too  heavily 
weighted  with  fruit  are  either  propped  with  poles  or  tied  to  the 
main  branches  to  prevent  them  from  breaking. 

The  olive  has  a  tendency  to  grow  downward,  that  is,  the 
lower  and  side  branches  droop,  protecting  its  trunk  from  sun- 
burn and  the  soil  beneath  from  drying  out.  These  may  be 
removed  every  year,  but  the  trees  continue  to  throw  out  growth 
from  the  side  and  lower  branches  every  year,  which  in  a  short 
period  of  time  droop,  seemingly  knowing  the  tree's  require- 
ments. It  is  nature's  system  and  cannot  be  changed  by  man. 

Before  the  introduction  of  parasitical  and  predaceous  insects, 
Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper  wrote:  "In  the  pruning  during  the  first 
years,  have  only  the  one  object  in  view,  that  is,  to  force  all  the 
woody  growth  into  one  main  trunk.  This  being  done  the  tree 
will  naturally  form  a  beautiful  shape.  The  cultivator  must 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  CULTURE. 


PLATE  V. 


OLIVE  TREE  PRUNED  BY  THE  SYSTEM  ADOPTED  BY  HON.  ELLWOOD 
COOPER,  AT  ELWOOD,  NEAR  SANTA  BARBARA. 

3oc  33 


34  STATE    BOARD   OF   HORTICULTURE. 

not  look  at  the  tree  of  to-day  or  to-morrow,  but  at  the  tree  of  ten 
years  hence.  All  branches  to  the  height  of  five  to  five  and  a 
half  feet  should  be  removed,  so  as  to  admit  of  close  cultivating 
by  horses.  Trees  planted  at  the  distance  of  twenty  feet  and 
well  kept,  will  in  ten  years  touch  each  other.  When  this  con- 
dition is  reached  they  will  be  in  full  bearing  and  therefore  will 
require  constant  pruning  or  cutting  back.  It  is  much  easier 
and  less  expensive  to  gather  the  fruit  from  small  trees;  besides, 
if  the  pruning  is  intelligently  done  it  will  improve  the  fruit 
and  secure  a  greater  quantity  to  the  acre  than  can  be  produced 
under  any  other  conditions." 


Olive  orchard  scene,  showing  Mr.  Cooper's  present  method  of  pruning. 

Circumstances  often  revolutionize  ideas  and  change  methods; 
he  now  says:  *  '*  I  have  changed  my  method  of  pruning  within 
the  past  two  or  three  years;  formerly  I  pruned  very  heavily. 
The  olive  tree  grows  so  rapidly  on  my  place  that  if  I  did  not 
prune  heavily  I  would  have  no  tree;  but  since  the  State  Board 
of  Horticulture  and  the  fruit  men  of  California  have  interested 
themselves  in  parasitic  insects,  and  have  sent  Professor  Koebele 
on  the  two  voyages  to  Australia  to  look  for  parasitic  insects  to 
keep  the  black  scale  in  check,  I  find  the  pruning  will  have  to 
undergo  a  very  great  change.  In  order  to  insure  the  rapid 

*Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  Report  of  Third  Olive-Growers'  Convention  (1893), 
pp.  30-31. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — PRUNING.  35 

increase  of  these  ladybirds  which  have  been  imported  from  Aus- 
tralia, and  which  we  hope  will  do  the  work,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  have  a  large  amount  of  brush  near  the  ground,  and  the 
question  is  which  is  better,  to  promote  the  increase  of  the  lady- 
birds that  are  going  to  keep  the  black  scale  in  check,  or  scientific 
pruning  of  the  trees?  I  cut  the  top  of  the  tree  back,  but  I  am 
now  cultivating  brush.  I  want  it  to  hang  down  on  the  ground 
so  as  to  absolutely  preserve  the  eggs  that  are  laid  by  the  lady- 
birds, and  also  to  protect  the  early  stages  of  the  larvse.  This 
is  necessary.  If  there  are  many  birds  they  pick  the  lady- 
birds and  carry  them  off,  and  that  will  defeat  the  object;  so 
that  now  I  am  not  pruning  an  olive  tree  as  it  should  be  pruned, 
but  am  pruning  it  to  preserve  the  parasitic  insects  that  will 
keep  the  tree  clean.  I  hope  to  avoid  the  expense  of  spraying.* 
If  this  can  be  accomplished,  certainly  we  can  produce  olive  oil 
at  least  one  third  less,  or  perhaps  at  fifty  per  cent  of  the  present 
cost.  The  great  trouble  with  me  has  been  with  kerosene  oil — 
ordering  it  by  the  carloads  from  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  washing, 
washing,  continually.  It  is  very  expensive,  and  so  long  as 
the  present  method  of  spraying  trees  is  kept  up,  as  a  matter  of 
course  the  more  pruning,  the  more  sunlight,  the  more  air  the 
tree  is  given  the  easier  it  is  to  keep  the  black  scale  in  check 
and  secure  a  crop.  But  with  the  parasitic  insect,  with  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  ladybirds,  this  brush  is  wanted  near  the  ground 
to  protect  them — not  pruning  olive  trees,  but  cultivating  lady- 
birds. I  have  changed  my  method." 

Question:  "Do  you  cut  the  trees  back?" 

"Yes,  every  year." 

Question:  "At  what  time  do  you  cut  them?" 

"I  cut  them  all  the  time." 

Question:  "How  high  do  you  keep  your  trees  generally?" 

"The  trees  that  were  pruned  formerly  were  not  cut  back; 
they  are  thirty  feet  high." 

Question:  "  How  high  would  you  keep  them  ?" 

"I  had  hoped  to  keep  them  at  twenty  feet,  but  doubt  whether 
it  can  be  done.  I  commence  when  they  are  not  more  than  ten 
feet  and  clip  off;  always  a  little  higher  each  time." 

Question:  "Does  this  cause  them  to  grow  like  a  willow?" 

"The  Mission  is  a  very  symmetrical  tree.     It  grows  into  a 

*Since  then  the  ladybird  Rhizobius  ventralis  has  practically  exterminated 
the  black  scale  in  his  orchards. 


36  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

main  stem  with  lateral  branches,  and  also  with  branches 
diagonal  to  the  main  stem,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  prune  to 
make  a  symmetrical  tree.  But  as  I  said  before,  I  am  cultivating 
the  lateral  branches  to  hang  down  on  the  ground  as  a  harbor 
for  ladybirds." 

Question:  "Do  you  recommend  the  thinning  out  of  the 
brush?" 

"  Yes.  The  tendency  of  the  Mission  olive  on  my  place  is  to 
grow  very  rapidly,  and  when  limbs  are  full  of  fruit  bend 
downward,  and  you  will  find  that  one  of  the  things  you  have 
to  avoid  is  not  to  allow  these  limbs  to  bear  down." 

Question:  "Do  you  sucker  your  trees?" 

"  Always,  except  when  very  young.  When  we  first  plant 
the  tree  we  are  very  careful  not  to  break  anything  off,  because 
the  leaves  of  the  tree  are  the  lungs,  and  if  you  keep  cutting 
all  the  time  before  the  tree  is  properly  rooted  it  will  not  make 
roots.  The  more  brush  and  leaves  you  have,  the  more  rapidly 
will  the  roots  grow,  until  the  second  year;  then  we  begin  to  cut 
away." 

Question:  "With  trees  three,  five,  or  six  years  old?" 

"About  twice  a  year  we  sucker  our  trees." 

Question:  ''In  planting  an  olive  tree  do  you  cut  it  back  very 
heavily?" 

"  Cut  it  all  away  to  the  cane.  In  no  case  do  I  allow  it  more 
than  four  or  five  feet  of  height.  Make  it  exactly  like  a  walking 
stick — no  leaves  or  branches." 

Method  Applicable  to  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.*— "The 

trees  before  leaving  the  nursery  should  have  all  the  lateral 
branches  shortened  in  from  one  to  two  inches  and  the  top 
should  be  cut  back,  as  this  prevents  the  evaporation  of  sap 
through  the  foliage,  and  there  is  consequently  very  little  lost  in 
transplanting.  The  best  time  to  transplant  olives  is  when 
they  are  in  the  growing  condition,  from  March  1st  to  May  1st, 
as  they  then  suffer  but  a  very  slight  setback,  will  thrive  much 
better,  and  the  percentage  of  loss  will  be  much  less  than  if 
taken  up  in  the  dormant  state.  After  planting,  the  trees 
should  be  cut  back  to  within  sixteen  or  twenty  inches  from  the 
ground,  or  wherever  it  is  desired  that  the  head  shall  be  formed, 
and  in  the  first  year  all  growth  starting  close  to  the  ground  or 
on  the  body  of  the  tree  should  be  allowed  to  remain,  as  it 

*George  C.  Roeding,  before  Fresno  Farmers'  Club,  1897. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — PRUNING. 


37 


prevents  the  stem  from  sunburning  and  promotes  root  growth. 
The  following  year  all  this  growth  should  be  removed,  except 
four  or  five  branches  properly  distributed  at  the  point  where 
the  head  is  to  be  formed,  and  these  should  be  shortened  in*  to 
within  six  or  eight  inches  of  the  body  of  the  tree.  The  year 
after,  these  branches,  in  turn,  should  be  shortened  in  at  least 
one  half,  and  should  any  new  branches  have  started  from  the 
main  body  they  should  be  removed.  This  shortening-in 
method  will  cause  the  stem  and  body  of  the  tree  to  become 
strong  and  stocky,  so  that  when  the  tree  is  old  enough  to  bear 
fruit  it  will  not  break  down  or  require  support  to  prevent  the 
branches  from  breaking  off.  The  natural  tendency  of  nearly 
all  the  olives  is  to  shoot  upward,  like  a  poplar,  and  unless  this 
method  of  shortening-in  is  carefully  followed  every  year,  it  is 
only  a  question  of  a  short  time  when  all  the  fruit  will  be 
on  the  top  of  the  tree.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  pruning 
is  just  as  essential  to  the  olive  as  to  the  peach  or  pear,  for  the 
shortening-in  of  the  branches  promotes  young  growth  through- 
out the  entire  tree,  and  the  fruit  is  evenly  distributed  and  is 
not  all  on  the  top.  If  not  pruned,  an  olive  will  come  into 
bearing  in  three  years  in  this  valley,  but  the  vitality  of  the  tree 
will  be  greatly  impaired  and  when  old  enough  to  produce  a 
full  crop  it  will  fail  to  do  so." 

Vase  or  Goblet  Form.  —  In  districts  along  the  coast  and  in 
the  bay  counties,  where  fogs  and  cool  atmospheric  conditions 
prevail,  especially  during 
ripening  time,  the  "vase" 
or  "  goblet"  form  of  prun- 
ing the  olive  is  becoming 
more  popular  every  year. 
The  position  of  an  olive 
grove  in  relation  to  the 
sun  appears  to  be  of  great 
importance,  for  growers 
have  experienced  that  by 
pruning  the  olive  in  this 
form,  opening  the  top  of 
the  tree  thoroughly  to  the 
sun,  the  fruit  matures 
more  evenlv  and  earlier. 


.  -i-ii-ii          j 

The  tree  IS  well   hollowed 


Tree  pruned  by  the  vase  or  goblet  form  in 
orchard  of  E.  E.  Goodrich,  Santa  Clara. 


38 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


out  to  admit  air  and  light,  but  with  careful  study  as  to  wood 
required  for  crops. of  the  two  following  years.  The  lower  and 
drooping  branches  are  allowed  to  grow  downward,  even  if  they 
touch  the  ground,  for  these  branches  are  the  most  fruitful,  and 
more  easily  reached  during  harvest  time,  thereby  facilitating 
gathering. 


GKAFTING  AND  BUDDING. 


The  olive  is  grafted  and  budded  very  successfully,  during 
the  different  periods  of  growth.  The  purpose  and  action  of  the 
graft  and  bud  are: 

(a)  To  multiply  the  varieties 
selected  on  trees  already  consti- 
tuted or  on  vigorous  subjects; 

(b)  To  further  the  wild  or  semi- 
wild  stocks; 

(c)  To  excite  the  development 
of   the  branches,  blossoms,  and 
fruits  on  the  parts  of  the  plant 
lacking  them ; 

(d)  To  reinvigorate  ailing  trees 
by  grafting  or  budding  them  with 
others  of  greater  fertility,  and  to 
make  others   more  resistant   to 
frosts    by    grafting    them    with 
hardier  sorts. 

Budding  or  grafting  exercises 
an  influence  in  several  ways: 
On  the  stature  and  durability 
of  the  tree,  on  its  fruitfulness, 
on  the  size  and  flavor  of  its  fruits, 
and  on  the  precocity  of  fructification.  It  also  modifies  its 
development  and  sometimes  also  its  duration,  making  it  larger 
or  smaller,  long  or  short  lived. 


An  old  olive  tree  grafted  over;  grafts 
growing. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — GRAFTING    AND    BUDDING.        39 

GRAFTING  THE  OLIVE. 

Cleft  Graft. — Large  limbs  are  cut  horizontally  and  split 
from  side  to  side  to  insert  the  cions.  The  common  practice 
has  been  to  split  the  limb  down  the  center,  but  of  late  it  has 
been  found  that  the  grafts  take  better  when  the  cleft  is  made  to 
one  side.  When  limbs  split  too  far,  it  leaves  the  grafts  in  a 
loosened  condition  above. 

The  method  has  been  improved  upon  by  making  the  cleft  to 
one  side,  or  on  both  sides,  of  the  central  pith  of  the  limb,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.  In  this  method  the  grafts 
are  held  more  firmly  than  in  the  former.  It  has  the  advan- 
tage also  that  more  than  two  grafts  can  be  inserted  in  the 
limb.  This  is  quite  important,  because  when  a  greater  number 
are  inserted  with  the  same  amount  of  labor,  the  chances  for 


Cleft  grafts  inserted  in  the  center  Cleft  grafts  inserted  on  both  sides 

of  a  large  limb,  ready  to  be  tied  of  the  central  pith  of  the  limb, 

and  waxed. 

success  are  better,  and  insures  a  more  uniform  growth  of 
grafts.  After  the  grafts  have  put  forth  growth  all  are  removed 
except  one,  the  strongest,  which  now  assumes  the  functions  of 
the  top. 

Branches  of  medium  size  are  cut  off  obliquely,  when  with  a 
steady  hand  a  vertical  cleft  is  made,  the  slit  being  nearly  one 
third  less  in  length  than  that  of  the  wedge  or  cion.  The  cion 
is  next  inserted  from  the  top,  the  cleft  being  extended  with 
the  knife  until  the  wedge  of  the  cion  is  wholly  inserted.  It  is 
then  bound  with  strips  of  cloth,  or  tied  with  heavy  budding 
twine,  and  waxed  over.  The  cleft  throughout  the  whole 
diameter  of  the  stock  is  made  with  a  chisel  specially  made  for 
grafting.  When  the  cleft  is  two-thirds  open  the  chisel  is 


40 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


leaned  against  one  side  to  keep  the  slit  half  closed  and  open  it 
sufficiently  to  insert  the  cions  one  after  the  other.  It  is  always 
best  to  graft  the  branches  intended  to  form  the  tree,  leaving  all 
the  side  branches  undisturbed,  as  they  force  the  sap  into  those 
cut  off  and  holding  the  grafts.  When  the  grafts  have  become 
strong  and  able  to  perform  the  functions  of  the  top,  these  side 
branches  are  removed. 


Cleft  graft  and  stock,  prepared  ready 
for  insertion. 


Cleft  graft  inserted  in  stock,  ready 
to  be  tied  and  waxed. 


Cleft  Graft,  for  Small  Stocks.— In  this  method  of  graft- 
ing the  cleft  is  not  made  in  the  center.  The  cleft  is  made 
from  either  side,  as  shown  in  accompanying  figures.  The  cion 
is  cut  from  both  sides,  to  be  large  at  the  surface  side  and  thin 
at  the  inner;  then  it  is  inserted  into  the  cleft  in  the  stock. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — GRAFTING    AND    BUDDING.         41 

The  cion  is  driven  down  as  far  as  it  will  go,  and  is  made  to  fit 
exactly  (both  barks  to  be  even)  on  the  surface  side;  the  other 
side  does  not  matter,  as  the  union  of  the  cion  and  stock  is  on  the 
surface  side.  In  time  both  sides  heal  over.  After  the  cion  is 
inserted  it  must  be  tied  and  waxed,  and  if  the  operation  is  per- 
formed low  it  must  be  covered  up  with  earth,  leaving  as  little 
of  the  cion  exposed  as  possible.  The  entire  leaves  on  the  cions 
must  not  be  cut  off;  at  least  one  third  of  the  leaf  must  be  left, 
to  prevent  them  from  drying  before  they  have  time  to  unite 
with  the  stock.  Also,  the  entire  leaf  must  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  cion;  the  trimming  of  the  same  prevents  it  from 
carrying  off  too  rapidly  the  fluids  by  evaporation.  In  this 
method  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  making  the  cleft.  A 
cleft  made  in  the  center  of  the  stock  generally  causes  the  stock 
to  split  too  far  at  the  time  the  cion  is  inserted,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  get  a  perfect  fit.  The  more  the  cion  is  pushed  down  into  the 
cleft  the  more  the  stock  will  split;  this  often  results  in  the  loss 
of  the  entire  tree. 

The  best  time  to  graft  the  olive  is  when  the  trees  commence 
to  put  forth  new  growth  in  the  spring,  through  the  summer 
months,  and  late  in  the  fall  when  they  are  commencing  to 
relax  in  growth. 

Crown  Grafting. — Crown  grafting  is  practiced,  from  Feb- 
ruary to  April,  according  to  locality,  when  the  trees  are  in  sap 
and  the  bark  can  be  easily  detached.  The  stocks  must  be 
cleanly  cut  off  thirty  days  before..  When  the  time  of  grafting 
has  come  the  wounds  are  revived  with  the  pruning  knife  and 
the  dry  portion  is  taken  off.  This  mode  of  grafting  is  suitable 
for  trees  of  average  and  of  large  size;  for  the  latter  it  is  even 
necessary,  because  it  permits  the  insertion  of  several  cions  in 
proportion  to  the  vigor  of  the  stock  itself.  The  cion  is  made 
about  two  to  four  inches  in  length.  The  higher  portion  has 
two  or  three  buds,  and  the  cut  of  the  lower  end  is  made 
obliquely,  like  a  flattened  wedge.  The  wedge  must  begin  in 
front  of  a  bud,  starting  from  the  medular  sheath  and  ending 
by  continually  thinning  in  an  acute  form.  Being  thus  deprived 
of  the  pith,  it  adheres  better  to  the  stock;  it  must  have,  there- 
fore, but  little  thickness.  The  insertion  is  made  on  top  of  the 
stock,  in  a  cut  between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  To  facilitate 
the  entering  of  the  cion  its  point  is  either  sharpened  or 


42  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

moistened  when  inserted  into  the  stock.  When  several  cions 
are  to  be  inserted  into  large  branches  they  must  be  placed  a 
good  distance  apart.  The  insertion  being  made,  the  parts  are 
wrapped  with  cloth  or  twine.  Then  grafting  wax  is  spread 
on  the  wounds,  on  the  cuts  and  on  the  bark  corresponding 
with  the  inserted  cions,  so  as  to  prevent  laceration. 

By  making  the  crown  grafting  near  the  ground  as  much  as 
possible,  both  the  cion  and  the  stock  can  be  covered  with  earth 
as  far  as  the  higher  buds,  in  this  manner,  the  success  is  more 
certain  and  the  development  more  prompt,  as  the  drying  up  of 
the  parts  is  prevented  and  the  development  of  roots  from  the 
incisions  facilitated. 

When  only  one  cion  is  to  be  inserted  into  the  plant,  the  suc- 
cess of  the  grafting  is  more  certain  if  the  stocks  are  cut  off 
obliquely  and  the  corresponding  end  of  the  branch  hewed  to  a 
wedge,  beginning  with  a  small  tongue  at  an  acute  angle.  This 
tongue  is  necessary  to  make  an  exact  joint  with  the  oblique 
surface  of  the  stock. 

Indoor  Grafting. — This  method,  as  illustrated  in  figures  on 
page  43,  is  practiced  mostly  indoor,  in  the  greenhouse  or  under 
frames.  The  stock  is  not  entirely  cut  off,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration,  but  about  half  of  the  foliage  is  removed.  The 
operation  is  performed  by  cutting  into  the  stock,  simply  press- 
ing the  knife  slightly3  so  that  when  the  cut  above  is  made  it 
will  form  at  the  lower  part  a  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  V-  This 
cut  is  made  directly  over  a  bud  (a  leaf)  on  the  stock.  This 
has  the  tendency  of  drawing  to  the  graft  nutritious  sap, 
which  keeps  it  alive,  and  aids  it  in  uniting  with  the  stock. 
The  graft  is  then  trimmed,  leaving  to  it  about  one  third  of  the 
leaves,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  and  inserted  in  the 
stock.  Care  must  be  taken  that  both  barks  fit  exactly  on  one 
side;  the  other  side  does  not  matter,  as  it  heals  over  in  time. 
The  graft  may  be  waxed,  if  the  operator  so  desires,  but  it  is 
immaterial,  unless  under  low  heat  or  no  heat  at  all.  After 
the  graft  has  started,  the  stock  above  the  bud  is  cut  back,  when 
the  tree  may  be  removed  to  the  open  air  or  planted  in  nursery. 

Grafting  in  Localities  of  Dry  Atmospheric  Conditions.*— 

"From  my  experience  in  grafting  olives,  in  the  Fresno  district, 
I  consider  February  the  best  month,  as  I  have  experimented 

*  George  C.  Roeding,  of  Fresno. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE   CULTURE — GRAFTING    AND    BUDDING.         43 

from  that  month  on  up  to  the  first  of  May,  and  have  met  with 
the  best  success  with  the  grafts  put  in  in  the  month  above 
stated.  The  cions  should  be  cut  when  the  grafting  is  to  be 
done,  and  nothing  smaller  than  a  cion  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil 
should  be  used.  In  grafting  over  large  trees  we  use  the  cleft 


Prepared  cion  and  stock  of 
an  indoor  graft. 


Indoor  graft,  showing       Cion  of  indoor  graft  in- 
growth, serted  in  stock  ready 
to  be  tied. 


graft.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  waxing,  and,  in  addition 
to  the  liquid  wax,  which  should  be  carefully  spread  over  the 
top  of  the  branch  which  has  been  worked,  and  around  the  side 
where  the  split  has  been  made,  thin  cloth  should  be  wrapped 
carefully  around  the  top,  as  well  as  around  the  branch  where 


44  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

the  split  has  been  made,  and  this  should  also  be  waxed  over. 
The  object  in  view  in  doing  this  is  to  take  every  precaution  to 
keep  the  air  out.  One  very  important  point  that  should  be 
observed  in  grafting  over  old  trees  is  not  to  cut  off  all  the 
branches  of  the  tree,  but  leave  one  or  two  to  carry  off  the  sap, 
which  must  find  an  outlet.  The  branch  or  branches  which 
remain  should  not  be  removed  entirely  the  next  year,  but 
should  gradually  be  cut  back  and  should  only  be  cut  away 
after  the  grafts  have  attained  some  size,  and  it  will  probably 
take  at  least  two  years  before  it  will  be  perfectly  safe  to  remove 
all  that  remains  of  the  original  tree.  In  some  localities,  espe- 
cially in  the  coast  counties,  I  have  seen  the  entire  tops  of  old 
olive  trees  cut  away  and  grafted,  and  the  trees  live;  and  here 
I  have  seen  the  same  experiment  tried,  and,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  the  trees  so  handled  died.  The  cause  of  this  is 
probably  to  be  attributed  to  the  difference  in  climatic  conditions 
in  the  two  localities.  I  believe,  however,  that  it  is  always 
better  in  grafting  over  trees,  whether  they  are  deciduous  or 
evergreen,  to  allow  at  least  one  branch  of  the  original  tree  to 
remain  until  the  grafts  have  attained  such  a  size  as  to  take  the 
place,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  the  original  top,  which  lias  been 
removed.  There  is  no  question  in  my  mind  that  in  removing 
an  entire  top  of  a  tree,  so  as  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  the 
sap,  it  is  a  terrible  shock  to  it,  and  if  the  tree  does  finally 
recover  it  takes  several  vears  to  do  so." 


BUDDING  THE  OLIVE. 

Budding  olive  trees  by  the  ordinary  methods  practiced  on 
fruit  trees  is  somewhat  difficult.  The  buds  being  small  and 
the  bark  thin,  great  care  is  necessary  in  order  to  insure  suc- 
cess. The  methods  herein  described,  while  somewhat  new  in 
use,  have  given  the  best  results. 

Plate,  or  Eye,  Bud. — This  is  one  of  the  simplest  of  all 
methods  and  is  employed  on  large  as  well  as  small  trees.  The 
operation  is  performed  in  the  spring  and  through  the  summer, 
or  in  the  fall.  Buds  put  in  in  the  spring  start  early;  those  in 
the  fall  are  left  to  lie  dormant  through  the  winter.  An  incision 
is  made  on  the  stock,  thus  ]  |,  and  the  flap  drawn  down.  The 
bud  is  then  cut  from  the  cion  to  be  a  trifle  smaller  than  the 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — GRAFTING   AND    BUDDING.        45 


Plate  bud  in  place, 
side  view. 


space  cut  in  the  stock ;  it  is  then  inserted,  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  flap  is  then  turned  up,  covering  the  bud  entirely, 
and  tied  tightly  with  soft  cotton  twine.  The  bud  consists  of 
only  an  eye  and  the  bark  which  sur- 
rounds it.  At  every  leaf  there  is  a 
bud,  which  on  being  cut  from  the 
stem  very  easily  separates  from  the 
wood.  At  three  weeks  or  so  the 
strings  are  removed.  The  top  of  the 
tree  is  then  cut  off  gradually  to  induce 
the  bud  to  start,  or  the  tree  may  be 
girdled  about  an  inch  or  two  above  Plate  bud 
the  bud.  When  the  bud  has  made  a  f; 
good  start,  and  has  become  strong,  the  entire  top  of  the  tree  is 
cut  away  a  foot  or  so  above  the  bud,  and  the  bud  tied  to  the 
stock.  As  soon  as  the  bud  has  assumed  the  functions  of  the 
top,  and  no  longer  needs  support,  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
top  is  cut  away  and  the  cut  made  is  waxed  over. 

Ordinary  Plate  Bud. — This  method  does  not  differ  mate- 
rially from  the  shield  method  hereinafter  described,  or  methods 

practiced  on  other  trees,  as  can  best 
be  judged  by  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration. The  incision  in  the  stock  is 
made  in  the  regular  way.  The  bud  is 
cut  from  the  limb,  the  leaf  having 
been  previously  trimmed  off,  leaving 
about  half  an  inch  of  the  stem  at- 
tached to  the  bud  for  protection  of 
the  eye  in  handling.  It  is 

A.  Incision  in  the  stock.          then  tied. 

B.  Plate  bud. 

Double  Flap  Bud.-This 

method  is  identical  with  the  plate  bud,  except  that  the 

incision  in  the  stock  is  made  in  the  form  of  an  H-    The 

flaps  are  drawn  both  ways,  up  and  down,  from  the 

center  incision;   the  bud  is  then  inserted,  as  shown 

in  the  figure,  and  tied.     These  flaps  protect  both  ends 

of  the  bud.     In  this  method  buds  having  a  large  bulge    bud,  in 

at  the  leaf  part  can  be  used.  Place- 

Ring  Budding. — The  cion  for  ring  budding  must  have  one 
or  more  buds,  and  be  at  least  two  and  one  fourth  inches  in 


46  STATE    BOAUD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

length.  Having  made  a  vertical  incision  in  it  with  the  grafting 
knife,  the  bud  is  carefully  detached  with  the  knife  from  the 
underlying  alburnum,  and  stuck  into  the  stock,  which  has  been 
deprived  of  an  equal  tube  of  bark.  In  making  the  insertion 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  bud  of  the  ring  be  close  below  a  bud 
of  the  stock,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  draw  the  sap  toward 
the  cion,  thus  insuring  its  development.  Should  the  cion  be  of 
greater  diameter  than  the  stock,  it  must  be  reduced  in  size 
accordingly;  if,  on  the  contrary,  a  portion  of  the  stock  remains 
uncovered  after  the  application  of  the  graft,  a  piece  of  bark 
may  be  added  to  fill  the  empty  space.  Lastly,  the  ligature 
is  made. 

Ring  Budding  with  Cortical  Ribbons. — In  ring  budding 
with  cortical  ribbons,  the  cion  is  prepared  as  in  the  preceding 
case,  but  the  bark  of  the  stock  is  cut  into  ribbons,  folded  down- 
ward. The  ring  being  applied,  the  cortical  ribbons  are  drawn 
up  over  it  and  the  whole  kept  in  place  by  a  proper  ligature. 

Shield  Budding.— Shield  budding  can  be  practiced  from 
March  to  September.  If  made  in  summer  the  shield  is 
taken  from  a  medium-sized  branch  of  the  year's  growth;  if 
made  in  spring,  from  a  branch  of  the  preceding  year.  The 
buds  must  be  well  formed  and  unexpanded,  and  the  branch  in 
sap  so  that  the  bark  may  be  removed  with  the  finger.  The 
maturation  of  the  object-bearing  branch  is  recognized  by  the 
dark  color  of  the  epidermis,  by  the  formation  of  the  terminal 
bud,  by  the  elasticity  of  the  tissues  under  the  pressure  of  the 
fingers.  A  branch  advanced  in  maturation  is  preferable  to  one 
still  herbaceous;  the  early  or  too  forward  branches  and  those 
too  floriferous  are  bad  object-bearers. 

The  eyes  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  branch  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred for  grafts;  ,those  near  the  basis  and  on  the  top  are  often 
defective,  because  they  are  either  tender  or  herbaceous,  or  too 
disposed  to  bear  fruits. 

In  regard  to  the  stocks  they  must  be  in  sap  to  receive  the 
cion,  consequently  the  bark  must  be  easily  removable.  The 
stocks  must  be  carefully  trimmed  of  all  growth  some  time 
before,  in  order  that  the  course  of  the  humors  may  not  be 
abruptly  arrested  at  the  moment  of  grafting  and  the  success 
hazarded. 

To    extract   the   shield   from   the   branch    two   transversal 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — GRAFTING    AND    BUDDING.         47 

incisions  are  made  with  the  grafting  knife  above  and  under 
the  bud  to  be  removed,  one  from  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  above  the  bud,  the  other  about  the  same  below.  The 
knife  blade  is  inserted  as  far  as  the  sap  wood  (alburnum),  and 
the  shield  extracted  with  a  ligneous  fragment,  in  which  is  the 
basis  of  the  bud.  The  alburnum  adhering  to  the  extremities 
of  the  shield  may  be  skillfully  removed  if  the  stocks  are  not 
much  in  sap.  The  shield  can  also  be  extracted  by  making 
three  incisions  in  the  bark  of  the  branch  in  the  form  of  a  tri- 
angle; that  is,  one  transversely  over  the  bud  and  two  in  the  form 
of  a  Vj  starting  from  and  terminating  under  it  in  an  acute  angle. 

Before  detaching  the  shield,  two  incisions  in  the  form  of  a  J 
are  made  in  the  bark  of  the  stock,  dilating  the  borders  of  the 
wound  with  the  grafting  knife ;  then,  holding  it  by  the  pedicel, 
the  shield  is  detached  and  with  the  aid  of  the  knife  inserted 
through  the  slits,  pressing  it  quickly  with  the  fingers  at  the 
same  time,  so  that  it  will  fit  exactly  the  alburnum  of  the  stock 
and  be  covered  with  its  bark,  the  bud  excepted.  This  being 
done  the  ligature  is  made  from  above  downward,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  displacing  of  the  shield. 

There  are  cases  when  the  sap  of  the  stock  is  abundant  and 
injures  the  graft.  This  may  be  prevented  by  making  the 
incisions  in  the  stock  in  the  form  of  J_  instead  of  J.  The 
shield  is  cut  square  at  the  lower  end  and  pointed  at  the  top, 
leaving  the  bud,  however,  in  its  nat- 
ural position.  The  shield  having 
been  inserted  through  the  transverse 
cut  of  the  incision,  that  is  to  say 
from  below  upward,  the  ligature  is 
made  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
wound  upward,  in  order  that  the 
shield  may  not  be  displaced  from  its 
position. 

Twig  Bud.— This   is  one  of  the 
simplest  methods  employed  on  the 

J  Twig  bud  insert-    The  same,  tied— 

olive,  but   requires  more  care   and    ed  in  stock-         reduced, 
skill.     It  has  an  advantage  over  all    reduced. 
other  methods,  because  the  buds  never  fail  to  start  after  they 
take  hold,  and  again,  there  are  no  blind  buds,  many  of  which 
never  start  and  which  are  greatly  encountered  in  all  other 


48 


STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 


methods  of  budding.  In  this  method  limbs  having  numerous 
twigs,  from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches  long,  are  used.  Each 
twig  is  utilized  for  budding.  The  twigs  are  cut  deep  into  the 
wood,  to  give  the  bud  sufficient  bark.  The  greater  part  of  the 
wood  in  the  bud  is  then  carefully  removed  with  the  end  of  the 
budding  knife  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  buds  are  then 
inserted  and  tied  in  the  regular  way.  The  leaves  are  partly 


Twig  buds,  showing  how  they  are  trimmed  and  removed 
from  the  branch.  The  one  on  the  right  shows  a  twig  bud  pre- 
pared for  insertion,  the  wood  in  it  having  been  gouged  out. 

trimmed  off,  leaving  at  least  a  half  inch  of  the  leaf  on  the  bud 
to  prevent  the  bud  from  drying.  This  method  can  be  performed 
at  any  time  of  the  year  when  the  sap  flows  freely.  Best  results 
are,  however,  obtained  early  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  as  the 
operation  can  be  performed  to  a  much  better  advantage,  the 
buds  growing  and  becoming  strong  in  one  season. 


CALIFORNIA   OLIVE   CULTURE — VARIETIES.  49 


VAEIETIES. 


From  a  single  species  there  issued,  through  fecundation,  so 
many  varieties  of  the  olive  that  now  their  number  can  hardly 
be  reckoned  and  it  would  require  a  long  study  to  describe  them. 
Such  a  task  would  be  a  most  difficult  one,  inasmuch  as  a  great 
many  of  these  varieties,  through  modifications  to  which  they 
are  subject  by  different  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  and 
cultivation  or  by  changed  locality,  possess  peculiar  characters 
and  habits  which  might  be  observed  and  recognized  only 
through  experience. 

In  many  European  olive  regions  it  has  been  observed  that 
many  varieties  have  not  maintained  themselves  permanently, 
and  also  many  have  been  introduced  under  the  local  names  by 
which  they  are  known  in  the  districts  from  whence  imported, 
and  on  fruiting  were  found  to  be  simply  a  multiplication  of 
the  same  under  different  names. 

In  selecting  varieties  of  olives  the  most  important  question  is 
a  knowledge  of  the  characters  of  the  tree,  the  stature,  the  pre- 
cocity, the  fruitfulness,  the  oiliness  of  the  fruit,  and  adapta- 
bility to  the  location  where  it  is  to  be  planted. 

1.  The  degree  of  resistance  of  the  fruit  to  cold  and  heat,  as 
to  whether  the  tree  can  thrive  in  unprotected  and  non-temperate 
places,  in  unpropitious  localities,  or   places  having  the  most 
favorable  exposures  and  well  protected. 

2.  The  bearing  of  erect  and  robust  or  thin  branches,  numer- 
ous or  sparingly,  suggests  the  form  the  trees  will  have,  and 
the  method  of  pruning  to  adopt  to  make  them  fruitful. 

3.  Large  standard  trees,  or  dwarfs  or  semi- dwarfs,  indicate 
the   area   that  they   will  eventually  occupy  and   the   proper 
distance  to  plant. 

4.  The  degree  of  precocity  in  blooming  and  maturing  of  the 
fruit  should  be  known  in  valuing  the  fruitfulness  of  any  variety. 

5.  The  percentage  of  oil  that  olives  of  a  given  weight  will 
produce. 

6.  Varieties  that  make  a  good  pickle  ripe,  or  a  good  quality 
of  oil. 

7.  Varieties  that  make  a  good  pickle  green,  or  oil  when  ripe. 

4oc 


50  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Those  who  interest  themselves  enough  to  make  the  above 
research  can  but  feel  safe  in  the  outcome  of  their  orchards,  and 
need  not  be  asking  "  What  is  the  best  olive?  "  a  question  which, 
to  embody  all  the  essential  qualities  in  one  variety,  cannot  be 
answered. 

THE  "  MISSION  "  OLIVE. 

Although  innumerable  olive  varieties  have  been  introduced 
from  almost  every  locality  in  the  world  where  the  olive  grows,  no 
variety  has  as  yet  given  such  universal  satisfaction  as  the 
"  Mission,"  and  it  stands  to-day  preeminent  as  the  most  popular 
and  most  profitable  variety  grown.  It  has  qualities  found  in 
no  other  variety,  and  is  therefore  given  first  place  on  the  list. 

Mission,  so  called,  from  its  first  having  been  grown  at  the 
missions  and  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  at  their  advent. 
It  is  a  remarkable  variety  and  fit  for  either  oil  or  pickles. 
There  are  various  types  of  this  so-called  "  Mission  "  olive,  but 
the  one  most  universally  grown  is  easily  distinguished,  being 
characteristically  marked,  from  all  other  types  and  varieties. 
It  is  a  tree  of  great  longevity,  of  extraordinarily  large  dimen- 
sions, of  thrifty  growth,  erect,  hardy,  and  well  adapted  to  our 
climate.  It  thrives  and  does  well  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
State.  It  grows  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  if  well  drained. 
Bark  grayish,  branches  slightly  drooping;  leaf  lanceolate, 
upper  face  deep  green,  smooth,  under  face  greenish  ashy  white. 
Fruit  elongated,  distributed  irregularly,  isolated  or  grouped  in 
twos,  threes,  and  clusters,  red  at  first,  but  deep  purple-black 
when  ripe;  it  carries  on  its  surface  numerous  white  specks, 
most  of  which  disappear  gradually  on  ripening.  Ripens  late 
and  unevenly,  which  is  its  great  drawback,  especially  in  sec- 
tions where  the  soil  gets  very  loose  after  an  early  rain  and  is 
visited  by  early  frosts.  Many,  however,  prefer  it  on  account  of 
its  late  ripening,  as'  the  picking  is  done  in  winter  after  all 
fruits  are  gathered,  and  the  growers  are  independent  of  high- 
priced  labor. 


CALIFORNIA  OLIVE  CULTURE. 


PLATE  VI. 


FRUITING  BRANCH  OF  "MISSION"  OLIVE.    (REDUCED.) 


52 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


INTRODUCED  VARIETIES. 

The  following  varieties  have  been  introduced  into  the  State 
and  some  have  been  planted  to  a  considerable  extent.  Those 
so  far  as  known  to  the  writer  are  described  briefly,  with 
comments: 

WILD    TYPE — DWARF    TREES. 

Tree  semi-dwarf,  very  showy,  small  branches,  robust  and 
erect.  Fruit  of  varying  size,  with  very  little  flesh;  valuable 
for  stocks. 

SEMI-WILD    TYPE MEDIUM    TREES. 

Redding  Picholine. — The  first  olive  trees  imported  to  this 
State  was  in  1872,  by  the  late  B.  B.  Redding,  from  France. 

"•1  These  were  of  the 
Picholine  variety. 
On  the  voyage  the 
tops  of  the  trees 
froze  down  below 
the  graft.  They  were 
planted  in  two  lots 
in  Sacramento,  and 
most  of  them  grew. 
The  shoots  that  came 
up  were  all  from 
below  the  graft,  and 
were  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout 
the  State  for  propa- 
gating purposes,  un- 
der the  impression 
that  it  was  the  true 
Picholine.  These 
produced,  instead  of 
a  large  berry,  which 
the  Picholine  is,  a 
small  olive  having 
characteristics  of  the 
wild  olive.  wild  species.  In  1888 

I  named  it  as  above,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  true  Picholine, 
a  variety  which  it  does  not  resemble,  in  either  tree  or  fruit. 


CALIFORNIA   OLIVE    CULTURE — VARIETIES.  53 

The  tree  is  of  small  dimensions.  The  fruit  is  quite  small,  and 
of  a  deep  blue-black  color.  It  makes  a  fair  oil,  but  not  of  high 
grade.  The  oil  congeals  at  a  moderately  low  temperature.  It 
is  best  suited  as  a  stock  to  bud  and  graft  upon. 

CULTIVATED  VARIETIES. 

Amellau. — Tree  of  medium  size,  strong  and  regular  bearer. 
Fruit  large,  oval,  pickled  green.  Ripens  early. 

Ascolano. — The  white  olive  of  Ascoli.  Valuable  for  pickling 
green. 

Atro-rubens. — A  vigorous,  tall  spreading  tree.  Fruit  below 
medium  size,  first  mottled  with  red,  and  deep  black  when  ripe. 
Skin  thin,  pulp  colored  a  vinous  red.  Makes  excellent  oil, 
but  unfit  for  pickles.  Very  sensitive  to  cold. 

Atro-violacea. — Tree  vigorous  grower  and  prolific,  of  a  weeping 
habit.  Fruit  medium  size,  deep  blue-black.  The  fruit  makes 
oil  of  high  grade,  and  also  good  pickles,  either  ripe  or  green. 
This  is  the  only  olive  so  far  known  in  the  State  that  dries 
well,  the  bitter  principle  entirely  disappearing  on  drying.  It 
ripens  early. 

Beca  Rufa. — Tree  of  medium  size,  and  moderate  bearer. 
Fruit  small,  and  suitable  for  oil.  Ripens  early. 

Belmonte. — A  beautiful  elongated  fruit,  smaller  at  the  calyx, 
larger  at  the  blossom  end.  Deep  blue-black.  Ripens  evenly. 
Makes  good  oil,  and  can  be  pickled  ripe  or  green.  Ripens 
early. 

Columella. — Tree  vigorous  and  prolific.  Fruit  before  ripe  of 
a  light  golden  yellow,  turning  to  wine  red,  and  when  ripe  dark 
purple..  Makes  excellent  pickles  in  the  semi-green  state,  and 
is  quite  deficient  in  bitterness.  Makes  a  fair  pickle  when 
ripe.  It  gives  a  large  per  cent  of  oil,  but  not  of  high  grade,  yet 
very  good  for  blending.  Fruit  ripens  unevenly,  and  is  very 
sensitive  to  frost. 

Correggiola. — A  vigorous  grower  and  prolific  bearer.  Makes 
a  very  high-grade  oil,  and  with  proper  pruning  can  be  made  to 
yield  a  good  crop  annually.  The  fruit  dries  very  readily  and 
releases  the  oil  easily  under  pressure.  When  grown  on  hill- 
sides and  light  soil  is  liable  to  rather  excessive  bitterness, 
which  is  at  first  very  noticeable  in  the  oil,  but  passes  away  as 
the  oil  stands.  It  does  best  on  rich  soils.  Ripens  in  November. 


54  STATE   BOARD    OB*    HORTICULTURE. 

Grossajo. — Tree  suitable  for  light  soils.  Fruit  medium  size, 
ripens  unevenly,  in  November.  The  oil  somewhat  "fatty." 

Hispania. — Fruit  large,  very  fleshy.  Good  for  pickles  in  the 
green  state.  Ripens  in  December. 

Infrantio. — Fruit  medium  size;  best  suited  for  oil. 

Lucques. — Tree  of  medium  size,  a  shy  bearer.  Fruit  of 
crescent  shape,  makes  excellent  pickles,  either  ripe  or  green, 
and  the  oil  is  of  highest  quality.  Ripens  early  and  evenly. 

Macrocarpa. — Tree  of  dwarf  habit — a  bush — and  a  shy- 
bearer.  Fruit  of  extraordinary  large  size,  but  deficient  in  oil, 
and  only  fit  for  pickling  green. 

Manzanillo. — Fruit  large,  orange  shape,  vinous  red  cast 
before  ripe,  changing  to  deep  black,  with  minute  white  specks. 
Tree  of  large  dimensions,  and  prolific.  The  fruit  makes  excel- 
lent pickles,  either  ripe  or  green,  and  also  an  oil  of  high  grade. 

Morinello. — Tree  medium  size,  very  hardy.  Ripens  early. 
Valuable  for  oil. 

Nevadillo  Blanco. — Tree  of  fair  size,  and  suitable  only  for 
specially  favored  localities.  Fruit  medium,  ripens  early.  Best 
for  oil. 

Nigarina. — Tree  large  and  a  thrifty  grower.  Fruit  medium, 
and  yields  a  high-grade  oil. 

Oblonga. — Tree  thrifty,  and  a  regular  bearer.  Fruit  elon- 
gated, makes  excellent  pickles,  either  green  or  ripe,  and  is  also 
valuable  for  drying.  It  makes  a  high-grade  oil.  Ripens  early. 

Pendoulier. — Tree  handsome,  thrifty,  drooping  in  character, 
very  prolific.  Fruit  large,  and  very  showy.  Makes  excellent 
green  pickles,  and  a  high-grade  oil.  Ripens  early. 

Pendulina. —  A  handsome,  tall  tree,  and  a  very  good  bearer. 
Fruit  medium  large,  excellent  for  pickles,  either  ripe  or  green. 
Rich  in  oil.  Ripens  evenly  and  early. 

Piangente. — Tree  of  weeping  habit,  very  prolific.  Fruit 
small,  and  valuable  for  oil.  Ripens  early. 

Picholine  ("St.  Chamas"). — Tree  large,  and  a  strong  grower. 
Fruit  oblong,  pickled  green.  Ripens  early. 

Polymorpha. — Tree  handsome  and  prolific.  Fruit  large, 
makes  excellent  green  pickles,  and  an  oil  of  fair  quality. 
Ripens  early. 

Precox. — Tree  medium,  prolific.  Fruit  oval,  small,  purple 
black,  valuable  for  oil.  Ripens  early. 


CALIFORNIA.    OLIVE    CULTURE VARIETIES. 


55 


Racemi. — Tree  of  medium  size,  prolific  and  hardy.  Fruit 
small,  and  suitable  for  oil.  Ripens  early. 

Razzo. — Tree  of  medium  large  size,  a  shy  bearer.  Fruit 
small,  and  suitable  for  oil.  Ripens  late. 

Regalis. — Tree  of  medium  size.  Fruit  large,  and  only  suit- 
able for  pickles.  Ripens  late. 

Rubra. — Tree  of  medium  size,  very  prolific.  Fruit  of  medium 
size,  and  makes  oil  of  high  quality.  Although  the  fruit  is 
small,  it  makes  good  pickles.  Ripens  early. 

Salonica. — Tree  of  medium  size,  a  shy  bearer.  Fruit  large, 
and  suitable  for  oil.  Ripens  late. 

Santa  Catherina. — Tree  of  medium  size.  Fruit  extra  large, 
and  good  for  pickling  green. 

Sevillano  (Spanish  Queen). — Tree  strong  grower,  with  spread- 
ing branches;  requires  rich  soil.  Fruit  large,  pickled  green. 
Ripens  early. 

St.  Agostino. — Tree  of  medium  size.  Fruit  green,  large,  and 
good  for  pickling  green. 

Sweet  Olive. — There  are  two  varieties  grown,  one  producing 
large  fruit  and  the  other  small  berries.  The  fruit  is  sweet, 
without  bitterness,  and  best  suited  for  drying. 

Uvaria. — Tree  of  medium  size,  vigorous  and  hardy.  Fruit 
of  medium  size,  dark  blue,  borne  in  clusters.  Makes  a  fair  oil, 
and  fairly  good  pickles.  Ripens  early. 

Verdale. — Tree  of  dwarf  habit,  a  shy  bearer,  and  very  sensi- 
tive to  cold.  .  Fruit  is  suitable  for  pickles.  Ripens  early. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  other  named  varieties : 


Ascoli 

Gentile 

Mortino 

Pecudo 

Attica 

Giogliaio 

Mortin 

Pilloro 

Bianchetta 

Gordal—  (Sevil- 

Mortellino 

Pignolo 

Bella  di  Spagna 

lano) 

Nigretta 

Picio 

Bellotudo 

Gremignolo 

Nocillara 

Puntarolo 

Carrasqueno 

Hervaza 

Obliza 

Racimal 

Casalivo 

Huff's  Spanish 

Occhino 

Racinoppe 

Cajon 

Javaluno 

Ogliaro 

Ragghio 

Champion 

Lavaguino 

Oleastro 

Ragialo 

Colchonudo 

Lechino 

Olivastro 

Rastrellino 

Columbaro 

Madrileno 

Oriolo 

Redondillo 

Cornicabra 

Mammolese 

Pal  on  o 

Rosseldino 

Cucca 

Mar.cherito 

Palazzriolo 

Salvatico 

Dalmatian 

Maremmano 

Palomino 

Taggiasco 

Dolce 

Mignolo 

Patronese 

Trillo 

Empeltre 

Monopolese 

Perugino 

Tondo 

Favoral 

Morchiaio 

Pesci  Atino 

Varal  Blanco 

Frantojo 

Marajolo 

Piangenti 

Verdigo 

Gargnan 

Morinello 

56  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

ORNAMENTAL   VARIETIES. 

Olea  Apetala. — Olive  without  petals,  has  elliptical  oval  leaves, 
quite  entire.  The  flowers,  without  petals,  as  its  name  indicates, 
are  disposed  in  bunches,  and  are  very  beautiful.  Native  of 
Holland. 

Olea  Americana. — Olive  tree  of  America.  It  is  found  in  the 
Carolinas  and  Florida.  It  is  an  erect  plant,  with  lanceolate 
leaves,  elliptical,  rather  oblong,  pointed,  smooth,  entire,  solid, 
glossy  on  the  upper  face,  and  of  a  fine  yellowish-green.  It  blos- 
soms in  June;  its  flowers  are  arranged  in  close  bunches;  its 
bracts  are  persistent,  united,  and  small. 

Olea  Capensis. — Olive  tree  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Very 
dwarf  and  bushy  plant,  two  feet  high.  Its  branches  are 
rough,  whitish,  tetragon.  Leaves  opposite,  oval,  rounded,  very 
large  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  European  varieties;  quite 
entire,  solid,  stiff,  of  a  fine  dark  and  gloomy  green  on  the 
upper  face,  and  pale  beneath.  It  blooms  at  different  times. 
Small  white  flowers,  disposed  in  elegant  and  showy  divergent 
bunches.  One  variety  only,  with  elliptical  wavy  leaves  and 
green  pendicles,  is  cultivated. 

Olea  Emarginata. — Tree  grows  in  India  to  a  height  of  sixty 
feet.  Branches  are  opposite,  gray,  and  striated;  has  the  leaves 
opposite,  oval,  rounded,  notched  at  the  summit,  quite  entire, 
solid,  wrinkled,  of  a  fine  lively  green  on  both  faces,  the  pendicle 
short  and  wrinkled.  Flowers  larger  than  any  other  of  this 
species,  bell-shaped,  in  four  small  divisions,  beautifully  disposed 
in  terminal  bunches. 

Olea  Exasperata. — Rough  olive  tree,  blooms  in  May.  Orig- 
inally from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Bushy  plant  of  about 
five  feet  high;  erect  and  dark  branches;  leaves  opposite, 
oblong,  obtuse  with  a  point,  quite  entire,  solid,  glabrous,  five 
or  six  inches  long;  numerous  white  flowers  in  trichotomous 
and  terminal  flowery  tufts. 

Olea  Excelsa. — Olive  tree  of  Madeira.  Small  plant,  having 
an  erect,  gray,  and  branching  stem ;  leaves  lanceolate,  elliptical, 
pointed  and  not  smooth  like  the  Olea  Americana,  but  with 
the  edges  reflected,  quite  entire,  solid,  shining,  of  a  dark  green 
color  on  their  upper  face.  Flowers  in  dense  bunches,  the 
bracts  leafy,  the  flowers  cup-shaped  and  persistent,  the  higher 
caducous,  large,  leafy. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE EXTRACTING    OIL. 


57 


Olea  Fragrans. — Odoriferous  olive  tree  from  China  and 
Japan.  Tree  grows  from  three  to  six  feet,  having  branches 
more  flexible  than  those  of  the  other  olive  trees. 

Olea  Rubra. — Resembles  the  Olea  fragrans;  its  leaves  are 
larger  and  its  bearing  is  also  more  arborescent,  but  it  produces 
scanty  flowers,  and  its  flowers  are  very  small  and  do  not  differ 
from  those  of  the  more  common  species. 

Olea  Serratifolia. — Tree  with  leaves  indented  like  a  saw. 

There  are  also  the  Olea  Chrysophylla,  Olea  Floribunda,  Olea 
Arborea,  Olea  Ilicifolia,  Olea  Ferruginea. 


EXTRACTING  OLIVE  OIL. 


,£*& 

^j&^wuik 


*"The  mode  of  ex- 
tracting oil  from  the 
olive,  which  was  prac- 
ticed thousands  of 
years  ago,  still  obtains, 
but  with  machinery 
better  adapted  for 
economical  work, 
steam  being  substitut- 
ed  for  the  labor  of  men 
and  animals.  To  be 
able  to  obtain 
largest  quantity  of  oil 
possible  from  the  olives 
they  must  be  on  the 
trees  till  ripe,  and 
shriveled — but  quan- 
tity is  at  the  expense  of 
quality.  The  finest 
grade  of  oil  can  only 
be  obtained  by  gather- 
ing the  fruit  while  it  is 

yet     hard,     but      Suffi-  Olive  Crusher  at  Camulos;  first  built  in  the  State,  aside 
Ciently    ripe    to    allow  from  the  one  at  San  Diego  Mission. 

the  pit  to  be  squeezed  out  without  carrying  any  of  the  flesh 
*Hon.  Frank  A.  Kimball,  of  National  City. 


^^?  .  m 


I 


58  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

with  it.  Early  in  the  season  the  olive  may  become  quite 
black  before  this  condition  is  reached,  but  later,  when  the 
weather  gets  cooler,  the  olive  may  be  '  ripe'  when  per- 
fectly 'green.'  Immediately  after  being  gathered  the  olives 
are  spread,  one  or  two  inches  deep,  on  trays  or  racks, 
which  may  be  placed  one  above  another,  leaving  space 
for  circulation  of  air,  great  care  being  exercised  to  prevent 
them  from  heating  (in  which  case  the  oil  is  spoiled  for  table 
use),  and  when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  moisture  has  been 
evaporated  they  are  ready  for  the  crushing  mill,  which,  with 
its  appurtenances,  must  be  made  of  materials  which  cannot 
absorb  odors — metal  and  stone,  as  much  as  possible,  being 
used — and  the  same  care  and  cleanliness  exercised  in  making 
the  oil  must  be  continued  until  it  is  in  the  bottle.  After  the 
olives  are  crushed  (which  is  done  under  stone  or  iron  rollers 
that  are  made  to  revolve  in  a  large  stone  or  iron  basin  in 
which  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  olives  are 
placed  and  which  constitutes  a  l charge'),  the  pulp  is  placed 
in  a  tub  of  proper  size,  made  of  very  narrow  staves  placed 
a  little  distance  apart  and  bound  with  strong  steel  hoops 
which  are  hinged  so  that  on  being  opened  the  pomace  may  be 
easily  removed,  and  a  light  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  it,  and 
an  oil  of  first  quality,  or  'virgin  olive  oil,'  is  produced.  The 
pomace  is  then  removed  and  recrushed  and  again  subjected  to 
pressure  sufficient  to  secure  a  second  grade  of  oil.  It  may 
be  again  crushed,  at  the  same  time  adding  hot  water  to  assist 
in  liberating  the  remainder  of  the  oil,  when  a  still  greater 
pressure  is  used.  This  gives  an  inferior  grade,  which  is  used 
for  light  or  lubricating.  There  yet  remains  some  oil  in  the 
pomace,  which  may  all  be  utilized  by  the  soapmaker  in  the 
manufacture  of  castile  soap.  The  residuum  is  applied  as  a 
fertilizer.  In  the  process  of  pressing  the  pulp,  the  fruit  juice 
and  oil,  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  pulp,  runs  from  the 
presses  into  large  tin  tanks.  The  oil  gradually  rises  to  the  top 
and  is  skimmed  off  and  poured  into  the  settling  tanks,  where  it 
must  remain  for  from  sixty  to  ninety  days,  when  a  natural  pre- 
cipitation will  have  thrown  down  nearly  or  quite  all  foreign 
matter,  and  the  oil  is  ready  to  pass  through  a  filter,  which  is 
made  by  lining  a  conical  bag,  made  of  heavy  filtering  felt,  with 
several  thicknesses  of  white  cotton-batting.  It  is  again 
filtered  through  druggist's  filtering  mats,  after  which  it  is  ready 


60  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

for  bottling.  Care  in  handling  olive  oil  does  not  cease  when  it 
is  transferred  from  the  filter  to  the  bottle.  It  is  exceedingly 
important  that  light  be  excluded  and  that  it  be  stored  where 
an  even  and  reasonably  cool  temperature  is  secured.  When 
offered  for  sale  only  'sample'  bottles  should  be  shown,  and 
these  are  not  to  be  sold.  A  purchaser  should  decline  to  take 
a  bottle  of  oil  which  has  been  placed  where  the  sun's  rays 
or  even  light  has  been  allowed  to  reach  it.  When  transferred 
to  the  kitchen  the  bottle  should  never  be  left  uncorked  and 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  in  the  dark." 

*"The  berries  are  dried  before  crushing,  as  it  is  necessary  to 
evaporate  a  portion  of  the  water  of  vegetation  which  they  con- 
tain. If,  however,  they  are  left  out. on  the  trees  until  shriveled, 
which  is  proof  that  the  necessary  evaporation  has  already  taken 
place,  no  drying  is  needed  after  picking.  This  late  picking  is 
not  best.  If  dried  by  the  sun  it  requires  about  fourteen  days. 
This  plan  cannot  be  depended  upon,  excepting  in  years  when 
the  fruit  ripens  early,  and  we  have  continuous  sunlight,  with 
moderately  warm  weather.  By  artificial  heat  ranging  from 
110°  to  130°,  the  drying  can  be  done  in  less  than  forty-eight 
hours.  The  crushing  and  pressing  should  follow  without 
delay;  that  is,  the  fruit  taken  from  the  drier  in  the  morning 
should  be  crushed  and  pressed  the  same  day.  Long  intervals 
or  delays  in  the  process  from  picking  the  fruit  to  expressing 
the  oil  tend  to  rancidity.  To  make  perfect  oil  requires  a 
perfect  system  in  the  whole  management.  The  capacity  of  the 
press,  the  crusher,  the  drier,  and  the  number  of  pickers  should 
correspond  or  be  about  equal.  All  fruit  picked  during  the  day 
should  be  in  at  night,  cleaned  the  following  morning,  and  go 
into  the  drier  immediately  after  the  previous  day's  drying  is 
taken  out.  The  heat  or  temperature  of  the  drier  ought  to  be 
so  graded  as  to  complete  the  work  in  forty-eight  hours,  and  it 
is  better  that  it  should  be  under  130°  rather  than  above. 
Economy  will  necessitate  in  the  business  a  system  in  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  the  process  admitting  of  no  delays  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end.  My  drier  has  a  capacity  of  five  hundred 
square  feet  of  surface,  and  will  contain  at  one  time  over  two 
thousand  pounds  of  olives,  equal  to  five  pickers  of  four  hundred 
pounds  each  per  day,  and  as  much  as  the  crusher  and  press  I 

*Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  of  Santa  Barbara. 


62 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


am  now  using  can  work.  The  almost  universal  method  of 
crushing  the  berries  is  by  a  heavy  stone,  similar  to  a  millstone, 
which  is  rolled  around  on  the  edge  in  a  deep  circular  groove, 
or  trough,  and  by  its  weight  does  the  crushing.  A  beam  passing 
through  the  eye  of  the  stone  and  working  on  a  journal  in  the 
center  of  the  circle  with  a  horse  attached  to  the  outer  end  of  the 
beam,  is  the  simplest  way  to  do  the  work,  and  the  plan  that  I 
have  adopted.  The  circumference  of  the  trough  depends  some- 


The  Crusher. 

what  on  the  size  of  the  stone.  The  one  I  am  using  is  four  feet 
high  and  six  inches  thick,  and  the  diameter  of  the  trough  in 
which  it  works  is  six  feet ;  the  length  of  the  beam  is  fifteen  feet. 
This  crusher  is  amply  sufficient  for  an  orchard  of  one  thousand 
trees.  It  cost  about  fifty  dollars.  A  stone  five  feet  in  diameter 
and  two  feet  thick  would  crush  in  eight  hours  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  berries  to  make  one  hundred  gallons  of  oil,  and  by 
working  it  night  and  day  the  crop  of  ten  thousand  trees.  It 
would  be  better,  however,  to  have  two  stones  half  the  thickness 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE   CULTURE— EXTRACTING    OIL.  63 

of  the  above,  one  following  the  other  in  the  same  groove.  The 
horse  should  work  on  the  outside  of  the  building  containing 
the  crusher.  To  make  one  hundred  gallons  of  oil  each  day 
would  require  two  good  presses.  The  one  best  adapted  for  the 
purpose,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  is  that  used  for  making 
oleomargarine.  Such  presses  could,  with  very  little  expense, 
be  worked  by  the  horse  power  used  for  crushing  the  berries,  so 
that  one  man  could  do  all  the  crushing  and  pressing.  The 
press  I  am  using  is  an  old-fashioned  wooden  beam  press.  The 
beam  is  twenty-six  feet  long,  and  with  a  large  box  filled  with 
rock  suspended  at  the  extreme  end,  the  power  can  be  increased 


The  Power  House— power  operated  by  horse  power  from  an  independent 

building. 

to  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons.  The  press  with  the  differential 
pulleys  cost  about  $150.  Such  a  press  cannot  be  improved 
upon  for  expressing  the  oil,  but  the  additional  labor  and  the 
time  lost  in  changing  are  so  much  greater  than  would  be 
required  for  the  oleomargarine  invention,  that  the  latter  would 
facilitate  the  work  and  be  cheaper  in  the  end,  besides  taking 
up  so  much  less  room.  The  crushed  olives  are  put  in  the  press 
in  cheeses  about  three  feet  square  and  three  inches  thick,  with 
wooden  slats  between  each  cheese.  Ten  or  more  cheeses  can  be 
put  in  at  each  pressing.  I  use  coarse  linen  cloth  to  contain 
the  crushed  olives.  The  fluid  that  is  expressed  is  put  in  large 
tanks  and  left  for  sixty  to  ninety  days,  when  the  oil  will 
separate,  and  being  lighter  will  rise  to  the  top,  where  it  can  be 


64  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

drawn  off.  The  pomace  after  the  first  pressing  is  recrushed, 
and  by  pouring  hot  water  over  it  a  second  quality  of  oil  is 
expressed.  The  refuse  can  then  be  used  for  fuel,  for  feed  for 
pigs,  or  for  making  a  third  quality  of  oil.  If  for  the  latter,  it 
is  thrown  into  vats,  boiling  water  poured  over  it  and  left  to 
ferment,  when  the  oil  still  remaining  will  be  liberated  and  rise 
to  the  top." 

* "  The  Mission  olive  on  my  place  at  El  Quito,  in  Santa 
Clara  County,  has  always  proved  very  difficult  in  oil  extraction, 
on  account  of  the  amount  of  solid  matter  which  holds  the  oil 
and  the  water  of  vegetation  together.  A  great  deal  has  been 
said  about  making  olive  oil  with  the  olives  absolutely  green, 
but  so  far  we  have  not  succeeded  at  El  Quito,  and  with  the 
Mission  olive  quite  ripe  on  my  place  it  has  proved  very  diffi- 
cult to  separate  the  oil  from  this  mass.  Any  one  who  has 
made  olive  oil  has  probably  encountered  this  difficulty.  After 
the  olives  are  pressed  there  runs  out  a  mass  of  olive  oil,  the 
water  of  vegetation,  and  solid  matter.  In  a  little  while  it 
settles;  the  oil  remains  at  the  top,  and  the  mixed  mass  in  the 
center.  If  the  oil  cannot  be  separated  in  a  few  hours  from 
this  mass  it  is  liable — I  do  not  say  it  always  will,  but  has  a 
tendency  —  to  ferment,  and  this  is  the  great  difficulty  in 
extraction.  In  making  olive  oil  with  the  Mission  olives  with- 
out drying,  the  result  seems  to  be  that  the  water  of  vegetation 
is  in  such  large  quantity  that  it  holds  the  oil  to  itself  and  to 
the  solid  matter  too  long.  *  *  *  The  process  of  oil  ex  traction 
from  olives  grown  along  the  foothills  proved  much  easier  than 
from  those  at  my  place,  and  the  quality  of  the  oil  much  superior, 
so  that  it  seems  that  we  shall  find  perhaps  in  the  hills  the  point 
at  which  the  Mission  olive  may  be  as  fine  as  any  other.  *  *  * 
I  think  that  eventually  we  shall  perhaps  find  the  particular 
olive  best  adapted  for  each  particular  locality.  Where  the  soil 
is  over-rich  the  tendency  is  to  produce  too  much  solid  matter. 
As  in  wine-making,  there  is  always  the  difficulty  of  having  so 
much  solid  matter  that  it  cannot  be  removed  before  the  wine 
has  been  affected." 


*  Edward  E.  Goodrich,  Report  of  Third  Olive-Growers'  Convention  (1893)r 
p.  24. 


PQ 


H    8 
§  ^ 


«l 


1  o 


O    o 


1-4  cq 


li 


5oc 


bb  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

*  "I  have  six  olive  orchards  in  different  locations.     The  one 
on  the  lowest  land  is  in  what  is  known  as  black  adobe.    When 
it  gets  wet  no  animal  can  travel  over  it.     It  is  probably  sixty 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     Another  is   in  black  adobe 
that  is  probably  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea;  another  is  in  sandy  loam,  composed  of  soil  washed 
down  from  hills  and  mountains.     I  have  another  orchard  that 
is  in  what  we  call  red  lands,  something  similar  to  the  red 
lands  about  Redlands,  four  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
.sea  and  on  a  side  hill.     I  have  also,  alongside  of   it,  at  the 
same  height,  an  orchard  in  solid  black  adobe,  within  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  of  the  same  place.     I  have  another  about  four  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  sandy  loam.     Of  course 
I  make  oil  from  these  olives  as  they  ripen.     But  I  have  the 
trees    in   a   great   many   different    locations    under    different 
circumstances,  and   thus  I  have  ripe  fruit  in  some  orchards 
perhaps  a  month  before  it   is   ripe   in   others,  so  that  I  can 
begin   early    and   continue   the   oil-making   until  late.      The 
oil  I  made  two  years  ago  I  had  in  seven  different   tanks  or 
vessels.     That  made  from  one  orchard,  first;  and  from  a  dif- 
ferent orchard,  second;  third,  fourth,  and  so  on,  down  to  the 
end  of  March,  when  I  finished.     Excepting  the  first  tank,  I 
could  see  no  difference  in  the  oils.     No  man    could  detect  a 
difference    in   taste,   color,   or   weight.     Regarding   the   fatty 
matter  that  Mr.  Goodrich  speaks  about  in  the  Mission  olive, 
on  some  lands,  there  is  so  much  fatty  matter  that  the  oil  is 
too  thick.     As  a  matter  of  absolute  knowledge  as  to  the  diffi- 
culty in  extracting  the  oil  from  the  different  orchards,  I  have 
not  been  able  to  discover  any;  but  my  olives  are  always  very 
perfectly  dried.     I  have  four  or  five  different  drying-houses. 
The  olives  are  put  in  these  drying-houses  in  very  thin  layers, 
and  the  heat  is  kept  at  about  120°  F.;  they  are  not  taken  out 
until  they  are  thoroughly  ready  for  the  crushing,,  and  that  is  a 
great  factor  in  making  oil.     The  probability  is  that  one  half  of  . 
the  weight   passes  oft*  in  the  nioisture,  and   after  I  get  these 
olives  in  that  condition  they  will  be  spongy  and  rather  greasy; 
that  is,  if  one  puts  his  hand  on  them  he  can  tell  in  the  dark 
whether  they  are   ready  to   crush   or   not,  by  simply  feeling 
them.     If  they  are  allowed  to  go  beyond  this  condition  and 

*Hon.  Ellwood    Cooper,    Report    of    Third    Olive-Growers'   Convention 
(1893),  p.  26. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE— EXTRACTING    OIL. 


67 


become  hard  the  oil  cannot  be  extracted.  When  the  olives  are 
dried  as  I  have  described,  I  have  not  discovered  any  difficulty 
in  separating  the  oil  from  the  solid  mass  of  pulp." 

Time  to  Gather    the    Fruit    for    Oil    Extraction.*— "I 

commence  picking  in  December,  or  as  soon  as  the  olives  turn 
a  purple  color— some  of  them  probably  only  a  reddish  color, 
one  side  partially  green,  but  ripe  enough  for  making  oil.  They 
require  more  drying  then  than  they  do  in  the  month  of  March 
or  April,  when  the  water  will  have  evaporated  mostly  from  the 


Gathering  olives,  showing  the  use  of  the  "  Titus"  extension  ladder  on  wheels. 

fruit  while  hanging  from  the  limb.  That,  of  course,  has  to 
be  governed  by  the  intelligence  of  the  person  managing  the 
drying.  It  is  supposed  that  the  oil  is  of  a  lighter  color  made 
earlier  than  it  is  when  made  later  in  the  season;  but  as  we 
make  it  all  in  the  same  tank  I  do  not  apprehend  there  is  very 
much  difference  as  to  the  color  of  the  oil  or  as  to  the  quality. 
In  Europe  they  dry  the  berries  almost  altogether  in  the  sun- 
light. In  the  coast  counties  here  that  is  impossible,  because 
we  may  have  a  series  of  foggy  days  during  the  process  of 
drying  which  would  render  the  work  impossible." 
*Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  of  Santa  Barbara. 


68  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

PICKING  APPAKATUS. 


The  picking  by  hand  of  such  small  fruit  as  olives,  from 
large  trees,  becomes  a  very  important  factor  in  the  success  of 
olive  culture,  and  must  be  done  expeditiously  and  as  cheaply 
as  possible.  The  fruit  of  young  trees  is  picked  by  the  use  of 
ordinary  stepladders,  but  to  reach  the  fruit  of  large  trees  from 
twenty  to  forty  feet  high  requires  special  contrivances,  of 


Gathering  olives  by  the  use  of  stepladders. 

which  there  are  many  in  use.  The  old  method  of  knocking 
the  berries  off  with  a  pole  is  not  practiced  in  this  State,  as  the 
injury  to  both  the  fruit  and  the  tree  is  too  great.  In  several 
orchards  there  is  used  a  common  ranch  wagon  with  a  platform, 
on  which  are  fastened  several  ladders  that  lay  up  against  the 
tree.  The  pickers  gather  the  fruit  by  pulling  it  with  both 
hands  into  an  apparatus  of  canvas  made  in  the  form  of  a 
scoop.  The  berries  are  then  passed  through  a  powerful  fan- 
ning mill,  such  as  used  for  cleaning  grain,  which  blows  out  all 
leaves,  rubbish,  and  dirt.  They  are  then  ready  for  the  drying- 
house.  Mr.  Cooper  uses  what  is  known  as  the  "Titus"  ladder, 
mounted  and  supported  on  wheels  (see  illustration  on  page 
67).  These  ladders  are  very  convenient,  as  they  are  wheeled 
about  with  ease,  and  do  not  injure  the  tree  in  any  way. 


70  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


OLIVE  OIL  FILTERING  OR  CLARIFYING* 


"This  is  a  simple  process.  The  most  common  method  is  to 
have  a  series  of  five  or  six  boxes,  one  above  the  other,  each  with 
cotton  batting  in  the  bottom.  The  oil  passing  the  sixth  will  be 
beautifulfy  clear  and  ready  for  market.  I  use  cylindrical  tin 
vessels  holding  about  three  gallons  each,  one  fitting  in  the  other, 
in  tiers  of  three,  with  fine  wire  sieves  in  the  bottom  of  each.  On 
these  sieves  I  place  two  or  three  layers  of  cotton  batting.  The 
oil  is  passed  from  one  tier  to  the  other  until  clear.  The  clarify- 
ing can  be  done  by  sunlight;  also,  the  oil  can  be  bleached  and 
made  much  lighter  in  color,  but  not  without  injuring  it.  When 
it  is  adulterated,  artificial  heat  is  necessary  in  the  process. 
When  once  heated  it  loses  a  part  of  the  nutty  flavor,  and  is 
liable  to  become  rancid  when  exposed  to  the  air.  It  should.be 
kept  in  an  ordinarily  cool  place,  not  exposed  to  sunlight  or 
heat;  neither  should  it  be  handled  any  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  the  filtering  and  bottling,  and  should  not  be 
shaken  after  bottling.  The  mucilage  contained  in  the  oil  will 
not  separate  for  a  long  time  after  the  oil  is  ready  for  use,  and 
as  it  does  not  injure  it,  is  not  therefore  objectionable.  It  will 
sometimes  form  in  the  bottles  like  globules  of  water,  or  in 
films,  settling  to  the  bottom  as  sediment,  and  when  shaken 
will  give  the  oil  a  muddy  appearance,  which,  with  the  common 
prejudice  against  all  table  oils  that  are  not  perfectly  clear, 
renders  it  unsalable,  as  consumers  consult  more  the  eye  than 
the  taste.  The  oil  is  better  when  new  and  fresh,  and  what  is 
gained  in  appearance  by  its  remaining  a  longer  time  in  the 
tank  is  more  than  lost  in  its  freshness  and  delicacy  of  flavor.'' 

*Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  of  Santa  Barbara. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE   CULTURE — PICKLING,    ETC.  71 


PICKLING,  PKOCESSING,  ETC. 


Olives  are  pickled  in  four  stages  of  ripeness:  (a)  Green — 
before  ripe;  (6)  Reddish  cast — when  the  olives  have  become  a 
dark  red  color,  before  changing  to  black;  (c)  Ripe — when  the 
olives  have  become  black;  (d)  Dead  ripe. 

Green  Olives.— The  fruit  is  picked  with  care,  into  lined 
baskets,  just  as  it  has  reached  full  size,  and  before  indications 
of  ripening  begin,  which  is  shown  by  tints  of  re*d  forming  on 
the  fruit. 

After  years  of  experimenting  in  the  production  of  pickled 
olives,  I  have  obtained  best  results  by  pursuing  the  following 
course:  The  olives  are  placed  in  shallow  vats,  which  have  previ- 
ously been  half  filled  with  water,  to  prevent  any  fruit  from  being 
damaged  when  being  emptied  into  them.  The  vats  are  filled 
with  fruit  to  about  seventy-five  per  cent  of  their  capacity.  A 
lye  solution  is  then  made  in  another  vat,  either  above  the  one 
containing  the  fruit  or  near  it.  Fifteen  pounds  of  pure  potash 
or  Greenback  powdered  caustic  soda  are  dissolved  in  a  wooden 
tub,  containing  from  five  to  ten  gallons  of  water.  The  potash 
or  caustic  soda  is  first  placed  in  the  tub  and  the  water  added. 
If  the  soda  be  used,  the  water  must  be  cold;  if  the  potash  be 
used,  the  water  must  be  hot.  The  soda  generates  great  heat 
and  readily  dissolves  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes.  In 
another  tub  is  dissolved  six  pounds  of  lime,  which  is  allowed 
to  settle.  The  clear  liquid  is  then  drawn  off  and  added  to 
the  lye.  Water  is  then  added  to  make  in  all  one  hundred 
gallons  of  solution.  The  plug  in  the  vat  containing  the  fruit 
is  then  drawn  out  and  the  water  in  which  the  olives  have  been 
is  allowed  to  run  out.  The  fruit  is  then  covered  with  the  lye 
solution.  The  room  must  be  darkened  and  no  current  of  air 
allowed  to  pass  through  it  during  the  changing  of  the  lye,  for 
exposure  to  light  and  air  will  change  the  color  of  the  fruit  from 
green  to  a  coffee  brown.  The  fruit  is  kept  in  this  condition  until 
the  bitter  principle  is  neutralized  by  the  lye,  which  varies,  accord^ 
ing  to  variety,  from  twelve  to  sixty  hours.  The  lye  is  then  allowed 
to  run  out,  and  immediately  water  is  run  in  and  the  vat  filled 


72  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

to  the  top.  The  water  is  changed  every  day  for  four  or  six 
days,  until  every  trace  of  lye  is  removed,  which  can  be  told  by 
testing.  The  fruit  is  cut  with  a  knife,  and  if  there  is  no  lye 
around  the  pit  it  is  then  time  to  add  the  brine.  At  first  it  is 
best  to  put  a  light  brine — six  ounces  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of 
water — on  the  fruit,  because  it  prevents  the  fruit  from  discolor- 
ing and  shriveling.  After  the  fruit  has  been  thoroughly 
pickled  and  the  color  firmly  set,  so  that  it  will  not  discolor  on 
being  exposed,  it  is  put  into  a  stronger  brine  made  of  twelve 
or  fourteen  ounces  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water,  and  in  three 
to  four  weeks  it  is  ready  for  market. 

The  success  in  pickling  green  olives  so  that  they  will  retain 
that  delicate  green  color,  depends  on  the  care  and  precision 
taken  in  running  off  the  lye,  the  immediate  covering  of  the 
fruit  with  water,  the  darkened  room,  the  prevention  of  draughts 
passing  through  the  operating-room  while  the  water  is  being 
changed,  the  purity  of  the  chemicals  used,  and  the  care  in 
making  the  brine. 

Reddish  Cast.— Olives  of  a  reddish  cast,  or  before  fully 
ripe,  are  selected  and  pickled  separately.  If  cured  by  the  lye 
process,  they  keep  longer  than  fully  ripe  fruit  pickled  by  the 
same  process.  If  cured  by  the  water  process,  they  become 
greatly  discolored,  owing  to  uneven  ripeness. 

In  pickling  olives  in  this  state  of  ripeness,  it  is  best  to  add 
to  the  lye  solution  the  clear  liquid  of  at  least  ten  pounds  of 
lime,  to  set  the  color. 

Ripe. — This  state  of  ripeness  is  indicated  by  the  jet-black 
color  olives  assume.  The  fruit  must  be  perfectly  sound.  They 
must  be  picked  from  the  tree  by  hand,  and  the  trees  gone  over 
several  times,  unless  they  be  of  a  variety  of  even  ripening. 
After  having  been  assorted,  they  are  placed  in  vats  half  full  of 
water,  to  prevent  bruising,  and  when  three-quarters  full  the 
water  is  run  off  and  the  fruit  covered  with  the  lye  solution. 
They  are  kept  in  the  lye  until  the  bitter  principle  becomes 
neutralized,  which  varies,  according  to  variety,  locality,  soil, 
and  climatic  influences,  etc.  During  the  operation  the  fruit 
should  be  tested  from  time  to  time  by  taking  out  a  few, 
washing  them  in  clear  water,  and  then  cutting  the  fruit  with 
a  knife.  If  the  lye  has  only  penetrated  a  short  way  they 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE— PICKLING,    ETC.  73 

should  be  left  longer  in  the  lye,  or  until  all  trace  of  bitter- 
ness is  removed.  The  lye  is  then  run  off  and  water  run 
in  immediately,  which  is  changed  every  day  or  so,  until  no 
trace  of  lye  is  found  in  the  fruit.  A  light  brine,  made  of  six 
ounces  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water,  is  then  put  over  the  fruit, 
in  which  the  fruit  is  kept  a  week  or  more.  This  light  brine  is 
then  run  off,  and  a  stronger  brine,  consisting  of  fourteen  ounces 
of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water,1  is  put  on  the  fruit.  It  is  very 
essential  that  the  first  brine  should  be  weak,  as  a  stronger 
brine  tends  to  shrivel  the  fruit,  which  destroys  its  commercial 
value.  After  the  olives  have  been  in  the  last  brine  two  or 
three  weeks,  they  are  ready  for  market,  and  must  be  then  put 
into  a  specially  prepared  brine.  Olives  grown  in  varied 
situations  differ  in  bitterness,  and  it  often  happens  that  a 
second  (or  a  third)  application  of  lye  becomes  necessary  to 
neutralize  the  bitter  principle  in  the  fruit. 

Dead  Ripe. — Many  prefer  pickles  made  from  dead  ripe  fruit, 
i.  e.t  fruit  that  has  shriveled  on  the  tree.  The  processing  of 
fruit  on  a  large  scale  at  this  stage  of  ripeness  necessitates 
extreme  care.  It  will  not  withstand  the  lye  treatment,  and  it 
it  is  only  occasionally  that  any  degree  of  success  has  been 
attained  by  the  water  process.  Families,  however,  find  no 
difficulty  in  processing  olives  in  a  small  way  at  this  stage  of 
ripeness,  and  they  are  most  palatable,  owing  to  the  abundance 
of  oil  in  the  fruit. 

Water  Process. — While  this  process  is  the  oldest  in  use,  it 
is  one  that  requires  patience  and  care.  Well-cured  olives  by 
this  process  keep  longer  and  possess  more  nutrition  by  way  of 
percentage  of  oil  than  fruit  which  comes  in  contact  with 
lye  and  which  must  naturally  lose  a  certain  per  cent  of  oil 
while  undergoing  pickling.  The  olives  are  gathered  when 
black  or  of  a  purple  color,  placed  in  wooden  vats  or  barrels, 
and  covered  with  fresh  water,  which  is  changed  every  day 
until  the  bitter  principle  is  removed.  Many  growers  change 
the  water  every  other  day,  and  claim  that  the  bitterness  is 
more  quickly  extracted.  The  extraction  of  the  bitter  principle 
requires  from  thirty  tc  sixty  days,  according  to  conditions. 


74 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


Slitting  board,  or  cutting  device  for  slitting 
olives. 


Slit  Olives,  Water  Cured.— By  no  method  is  there  a  more 
appetizing  olive  pickle  put  up  than  by  this  process;  while  it  is 
very  simple,  more  care  is  required  than  in  any  other.  The 

fruit  must  be  choice, 
well  selected,  and  of  even 
ripeness.  The  olives  are 
picked  by  hand  into 
baskets  or  boxes  lined 
with  burlap  or  cloth  and 
something  placed  in  the 
bottom  to  keep  them 
from  being  bruised. 
When  they  are  brought 
in  from  the  field  they  are 
at  once  turned  into  bar- 
rels of  water.  A  lot  of 
the  berries  are  dumped, 
upon  a  padded  table, 
which  rests  upon  a  barrel  filled  with  water.  The  help 
standing  at  these  tables  pick  out  the  blackest  ones  and  run 
the  rest  down  into  the  water.  These  black  ones  are  the  ones 
cured.  The  help  (women  preferred)  seated  at  tables  with 
cutting  knives  prepare  them  for  the  treatment.  The  knife  is  a 
block  of  wood  with  a  hole  just  large  enough  to  allow  a  good 
sized  olive  to  pass  through.  There  are  four  little  knives 
(although  two  are  preferred  by  many)  of  very  thin  steel  pro- 
jecting into  the  hole.  As  the  olive  is  pressed  through  it  is 
given  four  straight,  even  cuts,  and  then  falls  below  into 
a  keg  of  water.  The  olives  remain  in  these  kegs  (the  water 
in  which  is  changed  every  day  or  two)  until  the  bitterness  is 
removed,  when  the  olives  are  put  into  brine  and  are  ready  for 
market.  The  fruit,  being  slit,  requires  less  salt  than  when  pre- 
pared without  slitting.  Too  strong  brine  has  a  tendency  to 
injure  the  flesh  of  the  berry  and  soften  the  fruit.  Brine  made 
of  ten  ounces  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water  is  best  suited  for 
slit  olives.  After  the  fruit  has  been  put  into  kegs  or  barrels 
the  brine  is  liable  to  become  "  strong,"  due  to  leakage,  evapora- 
tion, or  exposure  to  the  air.  It  should  be  drawn  off  at  inter- 
vals and  replaced  with  newly  made  brine.  Fruit  should  never 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  brine  that  has  become  foul;  but  when 
the  proper  precautions  have  been  taken,  brine  should  keep  in 
prime  condition  for  a  season  or  more. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — PICKLING,    ETC.  75 

Lye  Process. — I  have  heretofore  recommended  the  use  of 
potash  instead  of  caustic  soda,  because  potash  has  not  the 
bleaching  effect  that  caustic  soda  is  known  to  possess.  From 
the  results  of  former  experiments  I  also  recommended  the 
gradual  neutralization  of  the  bitter  principle  in  the  fruit,  by  a 
weak  solution  of  potash,  changing  the  same  from  two  to  four 
times  until  this  was  accomplished.  In  recent  experiments  I 
find  that  caustic  soda  can  be  successfully  used,  but  with  the 
addition  of  lime.  The  caustic  soda  used  must  be  pure,  the  lime 
being  added  to  prevent  bleaching  and  to  set  the  color.  Caustic 
soda,  or  any  other  solution  (even  water),  takes  away  the  natural 
color  of  the  fruit.  Lime  when  added  restores  to  the  fruit  the 
color  removed  by  the  caustic  soda  and  renders  the  fruit  of  a 
uniformly  dark  color,  which,  while  artificial,  is  not  easily 
detected  from  the  natural.  Again,  caustic  soda  is  obtained  in 
the  market  strictly  pure,  and  in  a  powdered  state,  requiring  no 
boiling  to  dissolve  it,  only  the  addition  of  water.  The  same 
applies  to  the  lime,  thereby  doing  away  with  the  necessity  of 
purchasing  boilers  and  fuel,  which  are  required  when  potash  is 
used,  these  articles  being  expensive  and  cumbersome,  especially 
when  large  quantities  of  fruit  are  to  be  processed.  The  strength 
of  the  lye  I  now  use  on  both  ripe  and  green  fruit,  although 
varying  according  to  variety  and  state  of  ripeness  of  the  fruit, 
is  as  follows: 

Powdered  caustic  soda,  pure _... _ 15  pounds. 

Lime  ^_ 6  pounds. 

Water ._ , 100  gallons. 

Place  the  caustic  soda  in  a  tub  or  bucket  made  of  wood  (oak 
preferred),  add  slowly  five  to  ten  gallons  of  cold  water,  and  stir. 
In  another  vessel  slack  the  lime  in  about  the  same  amount  of 
water.  Allow  the  lime  to  settle;  then  pour  the  clear  liquid 
into  the  caustic  soda;  add  water  to  make  in  all  one  hundred 
gallons  of  solution,  and  apply  to  the  fruit  cold.  The  fruit  is 
kept  in  this  lye  solution  until  the  bitter  principle  has  entirely 
disappeared.  The  lye  is  then  drawn  off  and  immediately  fresh 
water  run  in,  in  fact  it  is  best  for  the  water  to  run  in  as  the  lye 
is  running  out.  The  water  is  changed  every  day  until  all 
trace  of  lye  is  removed,  then  brine  is  added. 

Olives  in  Oil. — Olives  in  oil  form  a  most  appetizing  dish, 
and  are  greatly  relished.  They  do  not  need  special  prepara- 


76  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

tion.  Olives  pickled  by  any  process,  although  ripe,  are  taken 
from  the  brine  and  covered  with  pure  olive  oil.  They  may  be 
eaten  immediately,  but  improve  in  flavor  if  allowed  to  stand 
over  night.  For  this  purpose  the  slit  olives  are  most  preferred. 

Other  Recipes. — There  are  many  other  recipes  in  vogue 
for  pickling  olives.  The  following  are  used  by  some  of  the 
leading  growers: 

By  Ellwood  Cooper,  of  Santa  Barbara. — For  ripe  olive  pickles, 
gather  the  fruit  when  of  purple  color.  They  must  be  picked 
and  handled  with  great  care,  being  dropped  into  water  to  avoid 
bruising.  In  pickling,  we  handle  the  fruit  in  water,  and  aim 
when  changing  the  water  to  get  the  olives  which  are  at  the 
bottom  one  day  on  top  the  next,  changing  the  water  every 
day.  By  this  careful  method  none  will  turn  out  defective. 
After  changing  the  water  every  day  for  thirty  or  forty  days, 
according  to  ripeness,  make  a  mild  brine  of  best  Liverpool  salt, 
about  half  as  strong  as  would  bear  an  egg,  and  leave  the  fruit 
in  the  brine  for  two  or  three  days.  Remove  from  'the  brine 
and  wash  in  cold  water,  taking  care  as  before  not  to  bruise  the 
fruit.  Then  make  a  brine  to  bear  an  egg,  boil  it,  and  pour  over 
the  fruit  when  cold. 

By  Frank  A.  Kimball,  of  National  City. — The  olives  are 
carefully  picked  and  must  be  handled  without  bruising.  A 
good  stage  of  maturity  is  when  the  fruit  is  quite  red  and  before 
it  has  turned  purple.  When  picked  the  fruit  must  be  immedi- 
ately covered  with  a  solution  of  concentrated  lye,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  ounces  of  lye  to  each  gallon  of  olives,  and  every  olive 
must  be  entirely  covered  by  the  lye  solution.  A  portion  of  the 
solution  should  be  frequently  drawn  off  and  poured  on  top  to 
keep  it  of  equal  strength.  After  twelve  hours  examine  and 
see  how  far  the  lye  has  penetrated.  When  it  has  nearly 
reached  the  pit  (which  is  easily  shown  by  breaking  open  some 
of  the  fruit)  draw  off  the  lye  and  replace  with  soft,  clear 
W7ater,  which  should  be  changed  once  or  twice  a  day  until  no 
trace  of  lye  is  left  in  the  fruit.  This  is  best  determined  by 
testing  with  litmus  paper.  After  this  add  salt  to  taste,  provided 
the  olives  are  to  be  used  immediately;  but  if  they  are  to  be 
kept  for  future  use  the  brine  must  be  made  of  the  same  strength 
as  for  preserving  meat,  and  when  required  for  use  may  be 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE PICKLING,    ETC.  t  i 

freshened  to  taste,  using  cold  water  for  the  purpose.  Perfectly 
ripe  olives  prepared  in  the  same  way  are  far  more  delicious,  but 
must  be  picked  and  handled  with  extreme  care  so  that  none 
shall  be  bruised;  they  will  not  keep  so  long  as  those  pickled 
before  having  reached  such  maturity.  During  the  process  of 
pickling,  the  olives  must  not  be  exposed  to  light  or  air.  It  is 
important  that  only  one  size  of  olives  should  be  processed  at 
the  same  time,  else  the  smaller  ones  will  be  spoiled  before  the 
larger  ones  are  "done,"  and  it  is  absolutely  essential  that 
everything  used  in  processing  olives  should  be  perfectly  u  sweet,'' 
as  any  offensive  odor  will  be  absorbed  and  the  fruit  rendered 
worthless. 

By  A.  D.  Thacker,  of  Pomona. — On  receiving  the  fruit  from 
the  orchard,  I  sort  it  into  three  sizes  by  means  of  a  grader 
made  especially  for  olives;  then  each  size  is  separated  by  hand 
according  to  color.  This  is  essential,  in  order  that  the  work  of 
neutralizing  the  bitter  principle  may  be  uniform  in  all  respects, 
for  too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  removing  of  the  lye 
as  soon  as  it  has  reached  the  pit  of  the  fruit,  and  in  extracting 
the  lye  from  the  fruit,  for  if  left  in  the  lye  solution  or  water  too 
long,  a  soft  or  mushy  olive  will  s»urely  be  the  result.  When  so 
graded  and  separated  the  olives  are  placed  in  cement  vats,  and 
covered  with  concentrated  lye  made  to  the  consistency  of  one 
can  to  five  gallons  of  water,  a  cover  being  put  over  them  to  keep 
them  under  the  lye.  I  lift  the  cover  and  carefully  stir  them  as 
often  as  once  in  six  hours,  and  continue  to  do  so  until  all  the 
bitter  principle  is  neutralized.  The  lye  is  then  drawn  off  and 
water  turned  in;  in  fact,  the  water  is  turned  in  as  soon  as  the 
lye  begins  to  flow  out,  in  order  to  continually  keep  the  olives 
under  cover,  thereby  not  exposing  them  to  the  air.  As  soon  as 
the  lye  is  all  out  I  wash  the  smut*  from  the  fruit  (which  now 
readily  leaves  the  olive),  keeping  the  outlet  in  the  vat  open  so 
that  all  smut  or  dirt  may  readily  pass  out.  When  the  olives 
are  clean  and  bright  I  then  close  the  outlet,  letting  the  olives 
remain  under  cover  away  from  air  and  light.  I  change  the 
water  every  six  hours  until  all  the  lye  is  extracted  from  the 
fruit,  using  pure  artesian  water.  The  length  of  time  required 
to  neutralize  the  bitter  principle  in  the  fruit  depends  largely 
upon  the  variety  of  olives  and  the  condition  of  the  weather  just 

*Refers  to  black  smut  which  exists  in  the  bay  and  coast  counties  or 
wherever  the  black  scale  abounds. 


78  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

before  picking  the  fruit  from  the  trees;  never  less  than  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  many  times  from  two  to  eight  days,  changing 
the  lye  once  or  twice,  depending  upon  the  length  of  time  required 
to  neutralize  the  bitterness.  The  time  required  to  extract  the 
lye  from  the  fruit  also  varies,  depending  upon  the  variety  of 
the  fruit  and  other  conditions.  When  all  the  lye  is  extracted 
from  the  olives  I  remove  the  fruit  from  the  vats  (using  wire 
shovels)  and  put  it  in  barrels  containing  brine  made  of  Liver- 
pool salt  and  artesian  water,  using  fourteen  ounces  of  salt  to 
each  gallon  of  water.  The  barrels,  after  being  headed  up,  are 
put  aside  for  ten  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time,  if  the  olives 
are  to  go  to  market,  the  barrels  are  rolled  out,  the  brine  drawn 
off,  and  the  barrels  refilled  with  brine  that  has  been  boiled, 
skimmed,  and  cooled ;  if  the  olives  are  not  to  go  to  market  the 
brine  is  drawn  off  and  the  barrels  refilled  with  unboiled  brine 
and  again  set  aside  until  ordered  to  market,  at  which  time  the 
brine  is  again  drawn  off  and  the  barrels  refilled  with  boiled 
brine  as  above. 


GEADING. 


The  grading  of  olives  for  pickling  is  very  important.  Largo 
berries  require  a  much  longer  time  for  the  lye  to  penetrate  to 
the  pit  in  neutralizing  the  bitter  principle  than  do  smaller 
or  medium-sized  ones;  therefore,  if  berries  of  all  sizes  were 
placed  together  in  the  lye  solution,  the  medium-sized  and 
small  ones  would  have  to  remain  therein  until  the  larger  ones 
became  processed,  and  thus  would  be  greatly  damaged  by 
remaining  in  the  lye  a  greater  length  of  time  than  was  neces- 
sary. After  trying  all  the  graders  recommended — some  of 
which  have  done  excellent  work  in  grading  other  fruits,  such 
as  prunes,  etc.,  but  which  were  either  too  slow  or  unfit  for 
grading  olives — I  perfected  a  grader  which,  for  rapid  work, 
accuracy  in  grading,  etc.,  is  not  excelled.  This  grader  consists  of 
three  trays,  made  of  one-quarter  inch  material,  twenty  by  forty- 
six  inches,  fitting  one  into  another,  with  slats  of  three-quarter 
inch  half-round  molding  extending  the  length  of  the  tray. 
The  slats  are  lined  with  cloth,  which  is  wrapped  around  the 
slat  before  it  is  nailed  down,  to  prevent  bruising  the  fruit.  The 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE — PESTS.  79 

olives  are  dumped  into  the  upper  tray,  and  by  a  gentle  lift  of 
one  end  the  olives  roll  toward  the  other  end.  The  small  ones 
pass  through  the  apertures  and  are  held  by  the  lowest  tray,  it 
having  a  bottom.  The  first  size  is  held  by  the  upper  tray  and 
the  next  by  the  one  in  the  middle.  These  two  sizes  are  the 
ones  to  be  pickled.  If  other  sizes  are  wanted,  other  trays  with 
apertures  of  different  sizes  are  added.  The  trays  containing 
the  different  grades  of  fruit  are  separated  and  the  fruit  put 
into  different  vats.  The  fruit  of  the  lower  tray,  being  too  small 
for  pickling,  is  separated  from  leaves  and  rubbish,  by  passing 
it  through  a  bean  or  raisin  blower,  and  converted  into  oil. 


PESTS  AFFECTING  THE  OLIVE. 


The  olive  has  so  far  enjoyed  freedom  from  the  insect  pests 
existing  in  European  olive  belts,  which  are  yet  unknown  in 
this  State.  The  following  are  the  most  formidable  pests  that 
the  growers  have  to  contend  with: 

Black  Scale  (Lecanium  olea,  Bernard). — This  scale  is 
widely  distributed  over  the  State,  particularly  in  the  coast  and 
bay  counties.  It  does  not  seem  to  thrive  in  the  interior 
counties,  as  the  intense  heat  of  summer  destroys  the  young 
during  breeding  time.  The  excrement  from  this  scale,  being 
deposited  on  the  leaves  and  fruit,  forms  a  smut,  which  is  very 
detrimental  to  the  growth  and  fruitage  of  the  tree  and  also 
detracts  from  the  real  value  of  the  fruit  either  for  pickles  or 
for  oil. 

The  most  approved  remedies  employed  for  the  destruction  of 
this  scale  on  the  olive  are  the  following: 

Kerosene  Emulsion— Cooper's  Formula. 

Kerosene,  150°  test 5     gallons. 

Common  soap  (laundry) _  Impounds. 

Water _ 2%  gallons. 

Boil  the  soap  and  water  until  the  soap  is  thoroughly  dis- 
solved; place  in  a  tub  or  barrel,  add  the  kerosene,  and  churn 
with  a  dasher  or  pump  through  a  nozzle  until  emulsified;  then 


80  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

use,  first  diluting  one  gallon  with  six  and  a  half  gallons  of 
water,  and  to  this  mixture  add  two  and  a  half  pounds  of 
good  home-made  soap  dissolved  in  hot  water.  All  the  mixing 
should  be  done  with  hot  water,  and  the  emulsion  should  be 
applied  at  a  temperature  of  140°  F.  During  spraying  great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  kerosene  to  rise  to  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  best  way  to  prevent  this  is  by  one 
man  doing  the  stirring  while  the  other  men  do  the  pumping 
and  spraying. 

Kahles'*  Distillate  Solution. 

Distillate  28°  (untreated) 5     gallons. 

Hot  water .__ 5     gallons. 

Whale-oil  soap _. 1%  pounds. 

The  whale-oil  soap  must  first  be  dissolved  in  the  water;  then 
add  the  dissolved  soap  to  the  distillate.  It  is  important  that 
the  distillate  be  placed  in  the  mixing  vessel  first,  then  place 
the  dissolved  soap  on  top.  Then  attach  your  spraying  pump 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  you  are  mixing  the  com- 
pound, and  keep  pumping  it  out  of  the  vessel  through  the 
spraying  pump  back  into  the  vessel,  until  the  whole  becomes 
of  a  rich  creamy  substance.  Keep  pumping  or  churning  it 
through  the  pump  until  it  becomes  a  complete  emulsion,  with- 
out a  speck  of  free  oil  in  sight,  which  will  take  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes.  When  properly  emulsified,  it  should  increase 
in  volume  about  one  third,  because  it  becomes  aerified* 

If  the  ground  is  in  good  condition,  containing  proper 
moisture,  and  the  trees  are  healthy  and  growing,  you  can 
apply  the  spray  in  the  proportion  of  eleven  parts  of  water 
to  one  of  the  emulsion.  Always  put  your  emulsion  in  the 
apparatus  first,  then  add  the  water.  The  stock  compound  and 
the  cold  water  will  mix  as  readily  as  milk  and  water,  and 
when  finished  should  resemble  milk  in  all  appearances.  If 
the  trees  are  dormant,  do  not  use  it  so  strong; -say,  about 
twelve  or  fourteen  gallons  of  water  to  one  gallon  of  the  stock 
compound.  When  spraying  be  careful  to  observe  any  parti- 
cles of  oil  which  may  not  have  been  thoroughly  emulsified, 
and  which  rise  to  the  surface.  In  this  event,  do  not  pump  it 
all  out,  but  only  that  which  is  the  correct  emulsion,  and  when 
near  the  bottom  empty  the  oil  off. 

*  F.  Kahles,  Superintendent  of  Crocker-S perry  Lemon  Grove,  Montecito. 


CALIFORNIA    OLIVE    CULTURE— PESTS.  81 

About  two  hundred  gallons  of  the  stock  mixture  can  be 
made  for  $6.25.  The  distillate  costs  5  cents  a  gallon,  and  the 
soap  about  5  cents  a  pound.  Two  hundred  gallons  of  stock 
mixture,  at  11  to  1,  give  2,200  gallons  of  spraying  solution. 

This  solution  is  made  the  same  as  the  kerosene  emulsion, 
only  this  distillate  contains  all  the  natural  oils  and  strength 
of  the  crude  oil,  nothing  being  taken  therefrom  except  the 
asphaltum.  Therefore,  it  is  a  great  deal  stronger,  and  stays 
longer  on  the  trees  without  evaporating.  Orchardists  should 
use  extreme  care  in  the  preparation  of  this  solution  and  apply 
it  on  the  trees  at  the  proper  time  and  under  competent  super- 
vision. 

Rosin  Wash  for  Newly  Hatched  Black  Scale. 

Rosin * --  18     pounds. 

Caustic  soda  (78%) 5     pounds. 

Fish  oil 2^  pints. 

Water,  to  make 100  gallons. 

Place  the  rosin,  caustic  soda,  and  fish  oil  in  a  boiler,  pour 
over  them  about  twenty  gallons  of  water,  and  cook  thoroughly 
over  a  brisk  fire  for  at  least  three  hours;  then  add  hot  water, 
a  little  occasionally,  and  stir  well,  until  you  have  not  less  than 
fifty  gallons  of  hot  solution.  Place  this  in  the  spray  tank  and 
add  cold  water  to  make  the  necessary  amount.  The  great 
secret  in  the  successful  preparation  of  this  wash  is  never  to  add 
cold  water  when  cooking,  otherwise  the  rosin  will  be  precipi- 
tated. It  is  difficult  to  again  get  it  in  solution.  After  the 
materials  are  thoroughly  cooked  and  diluted  with  the  proper 
amount  of  hot  water,  the  solution  should  be  poured  into  the 
tank  through  a  very  fine  brass  wire  sieve  or  piece  of  thin  open 
cloth.  This  will  remove  any  debris  that  would  become  lodged 
in  the  nozzle,  causing  annoyance  and  delay  when  spraying. 
This  solution  will  be  found  very  effective,  if  applied  in 
September  or  not  later  than  the  end  of  October.  It  is  one  of 
the  cheapest  and  most  effective  washes,  costing  less  than  one 
cent  per  gallon. 

Twig  Borer  (Polycaon  confertus,  Le  Conte). — This  borer  at 
times  does  great  injury  to  olive  trees,  especially  to  those  of 
recent  planting.  It  bores  into  the  stem,  above  a  twig,  down- 
ward, and  deep  into  the  pith,  also  gnawing  considerable  of  the 
wood.  The  branches  generally  break  of  their  own  weight,  de- 
6oc 


82 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


stroying  the  symmetry  of  the  tree.  It  is  well  to  look  the  trees 
over,  especially  if  newly  set  out;  whenever  one  is  found  having 
a  hole  emitting  sawdust,  poke  a  sharp  wire  into  the  hole  and 

tgive  it  several  turns,  thereby  destroying  the  borer, 
-which  is  invariably  inside.     If  the  limb  has  broken 
I  or  cracked  from  the  effects  of  the  borer,  it  is  best  to 
I  cut  it  off.     As  the  trees  grow  older  they  somewhat 
resist   the   ravages    of    the   borers,   which    seldom 
Mature  insect,  attack  large  limbs.     The  beetle  is  about  half   an 
larged.      ^^  ^n  j^g^  of  a  dark;  pitch  color,  having  on  its 
wing-covers  small  or  very  minute  hairs,  and  is  generally  cov- 
ered with  a  yellowish  powder. 


Branch  of   olive  tree  infested  with  black  scale  (Lecanium  olea},  showing 
larvae  of  Rhizoblus  ventralis  feeding  on  same. 

Natural  Enemies  of  the  Black  Scale.— The  black  scale  has 
numerous  natural  enemies,  among  which  is  the  twice-stabbed 
ladybird  (Chilocorus  bivulnerus),  which  aids  in  lessening  their 
number  to  a  considerable  extent  annually;  also,  many  other 


CALIFORNIA    OLTVE   CULTURE — PESTS. 


83 


of  our  native  insects,  like  the  lace-wing  fly  (Chrysopa  calif or- 
nica),  syrphus  fly  (Catabomba  pyrastri),  and  a  minute  internal 
parasite  (Dilophogaster  calif ornica). 


'•$**%& 


Male,  enlarged.  Larva,  enlarged.  Female,  enlarged. 

BLACK  LADYBIRD  (Rhizobius  ventralis). 

The  combined  efforts  of   all  of  these  friendly  insects  did  not 
materially  decrease  the  scale  until  a  black  ladybird  (Rhizobius 

ventralis)  was  introduced 
by  the  State  Board  of 
Horticulture  from  Aus- 
tralia. Singularly, 
though  this  ladybird  has 
increased  enormously 
wherever  it  finds  humid 
atmospheric  conditions, 
in  interior  localities, 
where  the  atmosphere  is 
dry,  it  has  not  developed 
with  such  rapidity. 
The  ladybirds  are  col- 

Collecting  Rhizobius  beetles  for  distribution  .      J 

among  orchards  infested  with  black  scale.          lected  and  placed  On  the 

trees  just  before  sunset.  The  beetles  fly  from  tree  to  tree,  and 
in  this  way  scatter  throughout  an  orchard.  Many  thoughtful 
growers  aid  the  ladybird  in  colonizing  by  carefully  collecting 
the  beetles  from  certain  trees  and  liberating  them  on  other 
portions  of  the  orchard.  Before  winter  sets  in  inverted  corn 
husks  are  tied  among  the  branches  of  the  trees  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  shelter  to  the  ladybirds,  so  that  they  may  not  perish 
during  the  cold  winter  months. 


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